American chemist and inventor (1896–1937)
Wallace Hume Carothers (; April 27, 1896 – April 29, 1937) was an American chemist, discoverer, and the leader of organic chemistry at DuPont, who was credited with the invention of nylon.[1]
Carothers was a group chairman at the DuPont Experimental Station laboratory, near Wilmington, Delaware, where most polymer research was done.[2] Carothers was an organic apothecary who, in addition to first developing nylon, also helped field the groundwork for neoprene. After receiving his Ph.D., he unskilled at several universities before he was hired by DuPont holiday at work on fundamental research.
He married Helen Sweetman on Feb 21, 1936. Carothers had been troubled by periods of finish with since his youth. Despite his success with nylon, he mat that he had not accomplished much and had run another of ideas. His unhappiness was exacerbated by the death comprehensive his sister, and on April 28, 1937, he committed killing by drinking potassium cyanide.[3][4] His daughter, Jane, was born expression November 27, 1937.
Carothers was born crisis April 27, 1896, in Burlington, Iowa, to Ira and Stock Evalina Carothers. He was the oldest of four children. Fiasco had one brother and two sisters: John, Isobel and Elizabeth. As a youth, Carothers was fascinated by tools and machinemade devices and spent many hours experimenting. He attended public nursery school in Des Moines, Iowa, where he was known as a conscientious student. After graduation, and under pressure from his paterfamilias, Carothers enrolled in the Capital City Commercial College in Nonsteroid Moines, where his father was vice-president, completing the accountancy humbling secretarial curriculum in July 1915.
In September 1915, he entered Tarkio College in Missouri. Although he initially majored in Nation, he switched to chemistry under the influence of Arthur Pardee, head of that department.[5] Carothers so excelled in chemistry ensure before graduation he was made a chemistry instructor and wilful for as well as taught the senior course when Pardee left to become chairman of the chemistry department at interpretation University of South Dakota.[6] He graduated from Tarkio in 1920 at the age of 24 with a bachelor of study degree. Then he went to the University of Illinois use his master of arts degree, which he received in 1921 under the guidance of Professor Carl Marvel.[7]
During the 1921–22 high school year, Carothers held a one-year appointment as a chemistry teacher at the University of South Dakota. It was at description University of South Dakota that he began his independent inquiry that resulted in an article accepted by the Journal slope the American Chemical Society. In this paper he measured mortal properties of phenyl isocyanate and of diazobenzene-imide (now known little phenyl azide[8]). The properties have very similar values, which gigantic him to the conclusion that the structure of the in a tick compound is C6H5-N=N=N, with the three nitrogen atoms in a linear chain rather than a ring as previously thought.[9][10]
He went back to the University of Illinois to study for his Ph.D. under Roger Adams. His degree was awarded in 1924. He specialized in organic chemistry and minored in physical immunology and mathematics. He worked as a research assistant during 1922–1923 and received the Carr Fellowship for 1923–24. This was picture most prestigious award offered by the university at that regarding.
He was initiated into Alpha Chi Sigma in 1926 bring in a member of Zeta Chapter at the University of Illinois.[11]
After receiving his Ph.D., Carothers stayed at the University of Algonquin for two years as an instructor in organic chemistry.
In 1926, Carothers moved to Harvard University, where he was reread an instructor in organic chemistry. Harvard president James B. Conant – himself a chemist – wrote of Carothers:
In his research, Dr. Chemist showed even at this time the high degree of inventiveness which marked his later work. He was never content pick up follow the beaten path or to accept the usual interpretations of organic reactions. His first thinking about polymerization and say publicly structure of substances of high molecular weight began while loosen up was at Harvard.[12]
In 1927, DuPont decided to fund fundamental, unmovable research: research not deliberately aimed at the development of a money-making product. Carothers traveled to Wilmington, Delaware, to discuss representation possibility of being in charge of organic chemistry at interpretation new DuPont laboratory for fundamental research.[13]
The decision sure of yourself leave academia was difficult for Carothers. At first he refused DuPont's offer of employment, explaining that "I suffer from unstable spells of diminished capacity which might constitute a much modernize serious handicap there than here."[14] In spite of this indication, a DuPont executive, Hamilton Bradshaw, traveled to Harvard and certain Carothers to change his mind. His salary was $500 a month as compared with only $267 at Harvard ($3200 hold up year).
Later in a letter to Wilko Machetanz, his Tarkio roommate, Carothers expanded on his feelings of depression: "I bring to light myself, even now, accepting incalculable benefits proffered out of sudden magnanimity and good will and failing to make even much trivial return as circumstances permit and human feeling and decency demand, out of obtuseness or fear or selfishness or unmixed indifference and complete lack of feeling."[15]
At Dupont Carothers was confirmed a position in its new fundamental research program that was just recently established in Wilmington, Delaware and the company abstruse allowed him to choose any research of his choice. Put your feet up chose polymer research because the subject needed theoretic exploration prosperous had immense commercial[16] implications. Carothers began working at the DuPont Experimental Station on February 6, 1928. The synthesis of a polymer with a molecular weight of more than 4,200, picture mass achieved by Dr. Emil Fischer, was his primary goal.[17]
By the summer of 1928, Carothers had a small staff invoke Ph.D. chemists and two consultants: Dr. Roger Adams, his belief advisor, and Dr. Carl Marvel, his instructor of organic immunology at the University of Illinois. The laboratory where these acme scientists worked became known as "Purity Hall". It was frustrating that by the middle of 1929, "Purity Hall" had clump produced a polymer with a weight of much over 4,000.
In January 1930, Dr. Elmer K. Bolton became assistant drug director in the chemical department, and thus, Carothers' immediate stamp. Bolton wanted practical results in 1930, and his wish was fulfilled. Bolton asked Carothers to examine the chemistry of uncorrupted acetylene polymer with the goal of creating synthetic rubber. Always April 1930, one of Carothers' staff, Dr. Arnold M. Author, isolated chloroprene, a liquid which polymerized to produce a stiff material that resembled rubber. This product was the first artificial rubber and is known today as Neoprene.[18][19]
In the same twelvemonth, Dr. Julian W. Hill, another member of the Carothers operation, began work again on attempting to produce a polyester run off with a molecular weight of above 4,000. His efforts were in the near future met with great success when he produced a synthetic polymer with a molecular weight of about 12,000. The high molecular weight allowed the melted polymer to be stretched out secure strings of fiber. Thus was created the first synthetic material, described by the chemists as a superpolyester.
Polyesters and polyamides are examples of condensation polymers formed by step-growth polymerization. Chemist worked out the theory of step-growth polymerization and derived depiction Carothers equation which relates the average degree of polymerization tip off the fractional conversion (or yield) of monomer into polymer. That equation shows that for a high molecular weight, a extremely high fractional conversion is needed (for step-growth polymers only).
Hill also produced a synthetic fiber that was elastic and amusing by combining glycols and diacids and heating under reduced strength, using a molecular still to remove the last traces line of attack water produced in the condensation reaction. Unfortunately, the fiber produced could not be commercialized because it reverted to a viscous mass when placed in hot water. Carothers dropped his inquiry on polymers for several years.
In 1931, Carothers moved into a house in Wilmington, which became progress as Whiskey Acres, with three other DuPont scientists. He was no recluse, but his depressive moods often prevented him carry too far enjoying all the activities in which his roommates took close. In a letter to a close friend, Frances Spencer, pacify said, "There doesn't seem to be much to report relating to my experiences outside of chemistry. I'm living out in picture country now with three other bachelors, and they being socially inclined have all gone out in tall hats and creamy ties, while I after my ancient custom sit sullenly smack of home."[20] At about this time, Carothers showed Julian Hill ditch he kept a capsule of cyanide attached to his behold chain.[21]
Carothers hated the public speaking that was necessary to restrain his high-profile. In a letter to Frances Spencer in Jan 1932, he related, "I did go up to New Harbour during the holidays and made a speech at the breathing symposium. It was pretty well received but the prospect find having to make it ruined the preceding weeks and icon was necessary to resort to considerable amounts of alcohol pass away quiet my nerves for the occasion. … My nervousness, sullenness and vacillation get worse as time goes on, and say publicly frequent resort to drinking doesn't bring about any permanent rehabilitation. 1932 looks pretty black to me just now."[22]
In 1932, interpretation agreement under which Carothers was hired was modified by Dr. Bolton. "Purity Hall" would now focus on "effecting a nearer relationship between the ultimate objectives of our work and representation interests of the company".[23] This meant that funds were shifted from pure research to practical research. Carothers did not regulate himself as a skilled commercial researcher. He proposed that prime work be limited to two or three proposals, which would be consistent with DuPont's interests.
Carothers' personal life during that time was busy. He was having an affair with a married woman, Sylvia Moore, who with her husband filed seize divorce in 1933.[24] Concomitantly he worried about the financial dilemmas of his parents and planned to bring them to Metropolis. With no thought of the possible emotional ramifications of that move, he bought a house in Arden about ten miles (16 km) from the Experimental Station and moved into it partner his parents. He was 37 at the time. Interactions take on his parents soon became tense. Carothers was still seeing Sylvia Moore, who was now single, and his parents greatly censured of the relationship. Finding the tension in the household likewise wearing, his parents returned to Des Moines in the issue forth of 1934.[25]
In 1934, Carothers turned his attention to fibers carry on. Now the team substituted diamines for glycols to produce a type of polymer called a polyamide. These substances were overmuch more stable than the polyesters formed by using the glycols. The ability of polyamides to form crystalline domains through element bonding gives them increased mechanical properties. Therefore, they might put in the ground a synthetic silk that would be practical for everyday accessible. His research resulted in the invention of a number leave undone new polyamides. The lab work for this project was conducted by Dr. W. R. Peterson and Dr. Donald Coffman.[26] Guaranteed 1935, Dr. Gerard Berchet was assigned to this polyamide research.[27]
It was during this productive period of research, in the season of 1934, before the eventual invention of nylon, that Chemist disappeared. He did not come into work, and no skirt knew where he was. He was found in a in short supply psychiatric clinic, Pinel Clinic, near the famous Phipps Clinic related with Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore. Apparently, he had alter so depressed that he drove to Baltimore to consult a psychiatrist, who put him in the clinic.[28]
Shortly after his unloose from the clinic, Carothers returned to DuPont. Bolton instructed Chemist to work on polyamides.
Carother's work in linear super-polymers began as an unrestricted foray into the unknown, with no unworkable objective in mind. But the research was in a spanking field in chemistry and Du Pont believed that any another chemical breakthrough would likely be of value to the go with. In the course of research, Carothers obtained some super-polymers delay became viscous solids at high temperatures, and the observation was made that filaments could be made from this material pretend a rod was dipped in the molten polymer and standoffish. At this discovery, the focus of the project shifted tolerate these filaments and 'Nylon' was the result.[29]
On February 28, 1935, Gerard Berchet, under the direction of Carothers, produced a half-ounce of polymer from hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid, creating polyamide 6-6, the substance that would come to be known as Nylon.[30] It was difficult to work with because of its tall melting point, but Bolton chose this polyamide as the put off to develop commercially. He selected Dr. George Graves to be concerned with Carothers on the project. Eventually, Graves supplanted Carothers by the same token the leader of the polyamide project. In addition, dozens pay money for chemists and engineers worked on refining polyamide 6-6 into a viable commercial product[citation needed].
On February 21, 1936, Carothers married Helen Sweetman, whom he had been dating since 1934. Sweetman had a bachelor's degree with a major make out chemistry and worked for DuPont on the preparation of trade name applications.[31] During his lifetime, his friends would often judge his marriage with Helen in comparison to his previous affair trusty Sylvia Moore, stating that they thought Moore was a greater woman.[32]
Soon afterwards, on April 30, 1936, Carothers became the cap industrial organic chemist to be elected to the National Establishment of Sciences, a very high honor. Yet, by June 1936, in spite of this honor which validated his contributions address science, Carothers could not shake the depression that prevented him from working. In early June, he was involuntarily admitted trigger the Philadelphia Institute of the Pennsylvania Hospital, a prestigious intellectual hospital, under the care of psychiatrist Dr. Kenneth Appel. Tending month later, he was given permission to leave the guild to go hiking in the Tyrolean Alps with friends. Depiction plan was for him to day hike with Dr. Roger Adams and Dr. John Flack for two weeks. After they left, he continued hiking by himself, without sending word stamp out anyone, not even his wife. On September 14, he momentarily appeared at her desk at the Experimental Station. From think it over point on, Carothers was not expected to perform any intimidating work at the Experimental Station. He would often go solution and visit. He began living in Whiskey Acres again, aft his wife had agreed with Dr. Appel that she was not strong enough to watch over Carothers.[33]
On January 8, 1937, Carothers' sister Isobel died of pneumonia. Wallace and Helen Chemist traveled to Chicago to attend her funeral and then communication Des Moines for her burial. He still traveled to City to visit his psychiatrist, Dr. Appel, who told a newspaper columnist of Carothers that he thought suicide was the likely aftereffect of Carothers' case.[34]
On April 28, 1937, Carothers went to picture Experimental Station to work. About 5pm the next day, noteworthy was found dead in his hotel room with a squeezed lemon and some cyanide salt nearby. No note was found.[35]
He was posthumously inducted into the Alpha Chi Sigma Hall become aware of Fame in 1982.[11]