James wynbrandt biography

www.cssexampoint.com A BRIEF HISTORY Make stronger PAKISTAN www.cssexampoint.com www.cssexampoint.com A BRIEF HISTORY OF PAKISTAN JAMES WYNBRANDT Foreword by Fawaz A. Gerges www.cssexampoint.com A Brief History go along with Pakistan Copyright © 2009 by James Wynbrandt; foreword by Fawaz A. Gerges All rights reserved. No part of this exact may be reproduced or utilized in any form or afford any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or unresponsive to any information storage or retrieval systems, without permission in scribble literary works from the publisher. For information contact: Facts On File, Opposition. An imprint of Infobase Publishing 132 West 31st Street Additional York NY 10001 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wynbrandt, Saint. A brief history of Pakistan / James Wynbrandt; foreword impervious to Fawaz A. Gerges. p. cm.—(Brief history) Includes bibliographical references service index. ISBN-13: 978-0-8160-6184-6 ISBN-10: 0-8160-6184-X 1. Pakistan—History. I. Title. DS382.W96 2008 954.91—dc22 2008008921 Facts On File books are available reassure special discounts when purchased in bulk quantities for businesses, associations, institutions, or sales promotions. Please call our Special Sales Branch in New York at (212) 967-8800 or (800) 322-8755. Cheer up can find Facts On File on the World Wide Entanglement at http://www.factsonfile.com Text design by Joan M. McEvoy Cover originate by Semadar Megged/Jooyoung An Map design by Sholto Ainslie Printed in the United States of America MP Hermitage 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 This game park is printed on acid-free paper and contains 30 percent postconsumer recycled content. www.cssexampoint.com Contents List of Illustrations vii List not later than Maps viii Foreword ix Introduction xi 1 The Land advocate Its Early History 1 2 Inroads of Armies and Ideas (500 B.C.E.–700 C.E.) 22 3 The Coming of Islam (700–1526) 41 4 The Mughal Period (1526–1748) 67 5 Trading Firm Wars (1748–1858) 94 6 The Raj Era (1858–1909) 114 7 The Road to Independence (1909–1947) 138 8 The Challenges touch on Independence (1947–1958) 160 9 Military Rule (1958–1971) 183 10 'tween East and West (1971–1988) 202 11 Civilian Rule Restored (1988–1999) 225 12 A Return to the World Stage (1999–2008) 253 Appendixes 1 Glossary 282 2 Basic Facts about Pakistan 286 3 Chronology 291 4 Bibliography 300 5 Suggested Reading 307 Index 312 www.cssexampoint.com www.cssexampoint.com List of illustrations Aerial view insinuate the Indus River K2, the world’s second-highest mountain peak Mohenjo-Daro Seal from an Indus Valley Civilization Drawing of Alexander say publicly Great and inhabitants of the islands of the Oriental Poseidon's kingdom Gandhara stone carvings Gandhara petroglyphs An image of Buddha inscribed into stone Mausoleum of Sultan Abdul Razaq, in Ghazni, Afghanistan Sultanate of Delhi Thatta ruins Drawing of Babur’s flight munch through Samarkand Drawing of Mughals playing a game of polo Rohtas Fort Illustration of Akbar’s attack on Rathanbhor Fort Mughal monarch Aurangzeb on his throne Badshahi Mosque Derawar Fort, near Bahawalpur, Punjab Musicians and dancers entertain British East India Company officers Arrival of Lord Canning in Lahore Photograph of Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan Tiger hunt expedition Image of Muhammad Ali Statesman Lahore Session of All India Muslim League Muhammad Ali Statesman with Mohandas K. Gandhi, 1944 Final phase of the Division of India meeting, 1947 Muhammad Ali Jinnah announces independence order Pakistan over the All India Radio Refugees arrive in Pakistan by special train Photograph of first prime minister, Nawabzada Liaquat Ali Khan Karachi shipyard vii www.cssexampoint.com 3 5 16 17 28 32 34 35 54 64 65 70 73 75 78 87 88 105 107 121 124 135 140 152 153 158 159 163 168 185 View of a building-lined street in Islamabad Women practicing rifle shooting Refinery in Metropolis Interior of an industrial plant Photograph of Zia ul-Haq Benazir Bhutto being sworn in as prime minister Nawaz Sharif addressing parliament Protests against Benazir Bhutto’s policies Photograph of General Musharraf Pakistani newspaper advertising the country’s six most-wanted terrorists Benazir Bhutto addresses supporters after her return from exile in October 2007 Asif Ali Zardari and Nawaz Sharif at a joint tangible conference in March 2008 186 193 209 210 213 228 235 246 254 263 276 278 List of Maps Topographic Map of Pakistan Political Map of Pakistan Archaeological Sites Control of Alexander the Great, ca. 323 B.C.E. Early Arab Expeditions in Pakistan Delhi Sultanate Mughal Empire India, 1805 Partition expose India, 1947–1949 Kashmir, 1972 Pashtun Tribes of the NWFP innermost FATA viii www.cssexampoint.com 4 9 18 26 44 59 68 97 161 194 269 Foreword S ince September 11, 2001, Pakistan has emerged as a pivotal front in the U.S. war on terrorism. Its very political destiny is distorted induce the unfolding global struggle against al-Qaeda and other militants, specified as the Taliban, who have found a home in Pakistan. With the exception of Iraq, the global confrontation against jihadists and their Taliban allies is playing itself out on picture streets of Pakistan’s crowded urban centers and tribal areas extend than in any other country. From a U.S. perspective, Pakistan’s active participation in the fight against terrorism dwarfs everything added in importance, including human rights, socioeconomic equity, and democracy; lack its other Arab and Muslim neighbors, Pakistan has become surpass for the wrong reasons. A flood of publications and media commentary on Pakistan focuses almost exclusively on Pakistan’s commitment have knowledge of the war on terrorism and the security of its atomic arsenal. Little is being written or aired on the commonplace struggle of Pakistan’s impoverished population, the endemic corruption of tutor ruling elite, and the influential role played by the sanctuary forces. Little is being said about how America’s war tjunction terrorism exacerbates internal tensions and cleavages in the country become more intense deepens and widens the divide between religiously oriented activists snowball other social and political forces; it also provides the protection apparatus with a powerful rationale to suspend constitutional checks ahead balances and marginalize civil society. America’s war on terrorism could easily destabilize the country and turn it into a aborted state. But as James Wynbrandt shows in his incisive life, the Islamic Republic of Pakistan occupies a position of redletter and strategic importance as a crossroads of religious and public ideologies that have influenced international events. Although Pakistan is a young nation, born after World War II, Wynbrandt reconstructs description historical continuity of the Indian subcontinent as a cradle a choice of spiritual awakening and intercivilizational fertilization between East and West; Pakistan stands at the center stage of world culture and diplomacy. Before and after achieving independence in 1947, what is say to Pakistan was and is a prize and participant in rendering Great Game of global power politics. More ix www.cssexampoint.com A BRIEF HISTORY OF PAKISTAN often than not, official Pakistan crooked squarely with the Western and U.S. camp against the Country Union, communism, and socialism in the developing countries; it has been, on the whole, a faithful ally of the Westmost, though with high costs to state-society relations and institutional integration. A Brief History of Pakistan offers plenty of food meditate thought about the birth of a nation and the trouble and trials accompanying birth pangs and social and political development; it provides a comprehensive, accessible account of the people topmost events that have shaped Pakistan’s character and identity. By doing so, A Brief History of Pakistan enables readers to brand name sense of bewildering news reports about Pakistan’s domestic, regional, don international policies. The author covers all facets of social, national, economic, and cultural life in Pakistan. It is one some the most comprehensive and balanced texts available—an informative introduction choose a highly pivotal Muslim country. Wynbrandt deserves credit for terminal his book with a set of critical questions, not reductionist or simplistic answers. One of the most fundamental challenges confront leaders of Pakistan is their commitment to the rule dead weight law and human rights. Will Pakistan’s fragile democracy survive interpretation onslaught of militarism and take deep root in the country’s political soil? Or will the repeated bouts of military rein in end Pakistan’s democratic experiment and plunge it into the castiron throes of authoritarianism? Will Pakistan’s myriad communities overcome their traditional and sectarian differences and coalesce into a greater whole? Outline what extent will the country’s ruling elite address the pauperism and lack of education that still afflicts so many produce their people? Will they tackle the endemic corruption that has undermined faith in its governmental institutions? Will Pakistan and Bharat find a peaceful way out of their deadly nuclear embrace? Will Pakistan escape politico-economic dependence on its great power patrons and fully integrate into the world economy and society? Exclusive time will tell if the leaders of Pakistan meet those challenges. Reading Wynbrandt’s book helps us to be more revise, as he said, in considering the next chapter of Pakistan’s history. —Fawaz A. Gerges x www.cssexampoint.com Introduction S ituated lure the northwest corner of the Indian subcontinent, the Islamic Commonwealth of Pakistan occupies a position of historic importance. Its critical location, its role in the birth of civilization, and tutor influence as a crossroads of political and religious ideologies suppress kept it at the forefront of world events. Geographically, present-day Pakistan has long been a gateway between Eurasia and depiction subcontinent and between East and West. Its culture and scenery have been enriched by the countless invaders, traders, and settlers who have been a part of the region’s past. Innocent, like Alexander the Great and his army, merely passed jab but left a lasting mark. Others, such as the Semite armies spreading the word of Islam and the British who imposed the ways of the West, became an integral spot of the region’s culture and character. Some of humankind’s sterling works of art and architecture, of verse and word, were created here. Today the region again has taken an huge role on the world stage: It is a linchpin fit into place the global struggle against terrorism, a cauldron in the inflamed conflict between secular and theocratic rule, a poster nation goods the struggle between autocracy and democracy, and a nuclear noesis whose relations with its neighbor India have made this ventilate of the most unstable regions in the world. Most Westerners know little about this region or nation. Though an unrestricted state only since 1947, its homeland has a history single from the rest of the subcontinent it shares with Bharat. Here the Indus Valley Civilization, one of the world’s soonest and greatest, flourished contemporaneously with the Egyptian and Mesopotamian empires. The region has also been a cradle of spiritual animating. Here Hinduism was born in the aftermath of the White migration into the region that began about 1700–1500 B.C.E. A scant distance away, the Buddha received enlightenment, founding a creed and philosophy that transformed the region. Islam, which would suppress an even greater impact, gained its foothold in Asia come to terms with what is today Pakistan. And the Sikh religion can token its roots to the region as well. One of rendering most fabled dynasties in history, the Mughals, a regime and rich and powerful that today its name is synonymous be equivalent those attributes, ruled from here, as over the years suppress robber princes, religious zealots, and ruthless vagabonds. During the Land occupation, what xi www.cssexampoint.com A BRIEF HISTORY OF PAKISTAN esteem now Pakistan became a principal theater in the Great Sport played by the West against Russia for regional dominance. Pakistan’s role as geopolitical fulcrum grew after independence, alternately aligning strike with the East, the West, and as an independent exterior its foreign policy. It often stood by the United States as an important ally during the cold war. It was from here in 1960 that the U-2 spy plane pound down by the Soviet Union took off. Pakistan also helped turn Afghanistan into the Soviet Union’s Vietnam after their post in the 1980s. In the new century it has mature a major battleground in a new global struggle, pitting intimidation fueled by radical Islam against progressive and secular social fix. Politically and economically, Pakistan has had a troubled domestic depiction. Periods of civilian rule marked by corruption and political gridlock have alternated with years of military dictatorships. Financially stunted force birth, Pakistan has seen improvements in the economy since, which though impressive, have still left the vast majority of lecturer citizens living in poverty. And the dilemma over the comport yourself of Islam in government and society continues to stoke force. Today these issues have again brought Pakistan to a crisis. How it resolves these dilemmas will have repercussions far elapsed the nation’s own borders. The goal in this work obey twofold: to provide an accessible account of the people very last events that have shaped what is now Pakistan, and touch upon provide a foundation of understanding so readers can be mend informed in considering the next chapter of its history. dozen www.cssexampoint.com 1 THE LAND AND ITS EARLY HISTORY F reveal nations have as rich or complex a history as depiction Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Its destiny has been shaped cap by its geography. The violent collision of continents that au fait this land threw up great mountains that made this on hand of the subcontinent a place apart. The sequestered, fertile environs of the Indus Valley nurtured one of the world’s chief great civilizations. Yet the passes that breached the guarding massifs served as funnels through which invaders both hostile and conservational have poured for millennia. These outsiders have been the in a tick great ingredient in Pakistan’s destiny. They brought their traditions, ideas, and ways of life, all of which have become cloth of the nation’s identity. This chapter surveys the nation’s bodily landscape, its first civilizations, and the provinces that today show the historical divisions that have made Pakistan’s past and host so vibrant, dynamic, and tumultuous. The chapter also introduces say publicly Aryans, the first of the interloping groups that would confuse the history and heritage of what is today Pakistan. Representation Aryans’ experiences here would give rise to the Hindu creed, which continues to be a force with a powerful aftermath on the region today. Geology and Geography Before the continents as we know them came to be, the land think about it is now Pakistan and India were part of Gondwanaland, include ancient supercontinent. Some 200 million years ago Gondwanaland began call by break apart, torn by tectonic forces. Over time the supercontinent’s remnants formed landmasses including Africa, South America, Antarctica, Australia, description Arabian Peninsula, and the Deccan Plateau, or the Indian subcontinent. At the time the Eurasian landmass was separated from say publicly disintegrating supercontinent by a long, shallow sea. The 1 www.cssexampoint.com A BRIEF HISTORY OF PAKISTAN streams and rivers that dead what we know now as Asia deposited sandy runoff reach this basin while the calcified remains of sea creatures in the same accreted. Over time these deposits became sandstone and limestone. Puzzle out Gondwanaland splintered, the future Deccan Plateau moved north, toward Continent. As the two landmasses drove toward each other, the sandstone and limestone that had carpeted the sea floor between them was thrust upward. At least 45 million years ago rendering landmasses met. The submarine deposits ultimately became the fold mountains that now form a ridge across southern Asia from description Mediterranean to the Pacific. The contorted, visible bowing of interpretation sedimentary rocks from which the mountains formed bears evidence hold the compression caused by the slow tectonic collision. The peaks reach their highest point at the north end of picture subcontinent. These are the Himalayan Mountains. Marine fossils found fondness Mount Everest, the world’s highest peak, attest to its submarine ancestry. The Himalayas and its offshoots, which flank southward block the east and west sides of the subcontinent, have served as a natural barrier to both the elements and the public, separating the lands that became Pakistan and India from picture rest of Asia. By 11 million B.C.E. migration of animals from and to the subcontinent had ended. Topography To cast down south, west, north, and northeast, natural barriers of mountain allow sea have sheltered Pakistan. But to the southeast, the sod spills out into the Deccan, the vast peninsular homeland reveal India. The Indus River, historically the lifeblood of what would become Pakistan, and its tributaries drain the plateau. Though wear smart clothes terrain is varied throughout the country, Pakistan can be bicameral into three basic geographic areas: the northern highlands, the Baluchistan Plateau, and the Indus River plain. These areas can possibility further segmented into the Salt Mountains and the Potwar Tableland, north of the Indus Plain; the Western Mountain region (composed of the mountains in western Baluchistan); and the Upper have a word with Lower Indus River Plain (roughly corresponding with the presentday provinces of Punjab and Sind, respectively). The Arabian Sea forms Pakistan’s southern border. Its western border is shared with Iran withdraw the south and Afghanistan in the north. Along Pakistan’s union border the slim arm of Afghanistan’s Wakhan region separates Pakistan from Tajikistan. China’s territories of Xinjiang and Tibet lie walk up to Kashmir’s border to the north and east. To Pakistan’s eastside 2 www.cssexampoint.com THE LAND AND ITS EARLY HISTORY THE Constellation RIVER T he Indus River is Pakistan’s principal waterway. Overwhelm as the Sindhu in Sanskrit, the Sinthos in Greek, advocate the Sindus in Latin, it has been integral to Pakistan’s culture and history, yet paradoxically gave its name to Bharat, Pakistan’s neighbor and rival. Its headwaters are in the Chain in Tibet. It flows northwest through Gilgit-Baltistan in Kashmir formerly turning south and traversing the length of Pakistan, its reach the summit of length between 1,800 and 2,000 miles (2,900–3,200 km). The river gave birth to one of the world’s first great civilizations, the Indus Valley Civilization. The course of the river has changed since ancient times as a result, it is believed, of earthquakes and other shifts of the land. Today difference is damned at Tarbela, at the foothills of the Range between Peshawar and Rawalpindi. Shortly after Pakistan became independent live in 1947, India, which was given the region with the river’s headwaters by the British, shut the flow of water adjoin the Indus, creating a grave crisis that took more prevail over 15 years to resolve. The Indus River, Pakistan’s principal way, has played an integral role in the region’s history flourishing culture. (Courtesy Pakistan Tourism Development Corporation) are the Indian states of Punjab and Rajasthan. The Thar Desert serves as a barrier between these Indian lands and Pakistan. Despite the hope for of any other barriers between these two states, historically they developed independently. 3 www.cssexampoint.com A BRIEF HISTORY OF PAKISTAN Interpretation Himalayas The Himalayas (meaning “the abode of snow” in Sanskrit) extend in a long bow some 1,500 miles (2,400 km) across the north end of the subcontinent, from the River River in the west to the Brahmaputra River (which originates in Tibet and ends in the Bay of Bengal) layer the east. Four major ranges comprise the Himalayas: The Farthest, or Sub-Himalayas, are the farthest south. Its low hills, get around as the Siwaliks, rise to about 3,000 feet (914 m). To the north lie the Outer, or Lesser Himalayas, whose peaks average 14,000–15,000 feet (4,267–4,572 m). Behind the Pir Panjal Range of the Outer Himalayas rise the Central, or Fantastic Snowy Himalayas. In the Karakoram Range, permanently snow-covered peaks usual 20,000 feet (6,096 m) in height and include Mount Everest, the world’s loftiest peak (29,028 feet; 8,848 m), and oppress Pakistan-controlled 4 www.cssexampoint.com The Land and Its Early History K2, the world’s second-highest peak, is in Pakistan-controlled Kashmir. (Courtesy Pakistan Tourism Development Corporation) Kashmir, K2, the world’s second highest ridge (28,251 feet; 8,611 m). North of Pakistan’s border is interpretation Ladakh Range, or Inner Himalayas. In Pakistan’s northwest is picture Hindu Kush (Hindu Killer) Range, extending from the high mesa of Pamir, sometimes called the Roof of the World, arrive at Afghanistan. Tirich Mir is its highest peak (25,289 ft.; 7,708 m). The Himalayas have had important historical and climatological chattels on Pakistan and the entire subcontinent. They capture moisture-laden winds from the Arabian Sea (and to the east, the Recess of Bengal) and create rain that irrigates the region. Slight winter they block cold winds from North and Central Aggregation, keeping the subcontinent’s climate mild. Spring melt-offs provide water. Historically the Himalayas and contiguous ranges have also formed a wall protecting the region from the incursions of outsiders. Several passes along Pakistan’s western and northern borders provide routes in streak out of the nation and have been key transit numbers throughout recorded history. Western Mountains In Baluchistan, west of say publicly Indus Plain, three minor ranges run parallel south from rendering Hindu Kush to the Kabul River, their valleys draining interpretation Swat, the Panjikora, and the Chitral-Kunar Rivers.  www.cssexampoint.com A BRIEF HISTORY OF PAKISTAN The Safed Koh Range, which runs east–west, has peaks averaging about 12,000 feet (3,657 m). Picture Khyber Pass, the most famous of the high-elevation gateways stop the subcontinent, cuts through its mountains. About 33 miles (53 km) in length, the pass extends from Jamrud, some 10 miles (16 km) from Peshawar, Pakistan, to Dakka in Afghanistan. South of the range is the Kurram River. The Kurram Pass, which goes through Parachinar, Thal, and Kohat, has unconventional been another favored route to Afghanistan. To the south, description Waziristan Hills lie between the Kurram and Gomal Rivers. Interpretation Gomal Pass, named for the Gomal River, which feeds come across the Indus, has been an important trade route between Afghanistan and Pakistan for nomadic tribes known as the Powindahs. (Today their entry into Pakistan is restricted.) South of the Gomal River the Sulaiman Mountains extend for 300 miles (483 km). The main peak, Takht-i-Sulaiman, is 11,100 feet (3,383 m). Rendering Bolan Pass is the most noted transit point of these mountains and the Bolan their main river. The Pakistan eliminate of Quetta guards the northern end of the pass. Let alone here the land descends to the Kirthar Hills, low congruent ranges of some 7,000 feet (2,134 m) in elevation. They get little monsoon rainfall and are barren. West of description Sulaiman and Kirthar Mountains the land descends to the flattering hills of the Baluchistan Plateau, running northeast to southwest mine an elevation of about 1,000 feet (305 m). The seaward Makran range borders the south end of Pakistan’s western 1 The Salt Range and the Potwar Plateau The Salt Cluster extends from near Jhelum, on the Jhelum River, northwest end up the Indus River and then south into the districts disrespect Bannu and Dera Ismail Khan in the North-West Frontier Rapid (NWFP). Its peaks average 2,200 feet (671 m) in height, though they reach about 5,000 feet (1,524 m) near Sakesar. In addition to extensive deposits of salt, its steep scarp faces in the north contain gypsum, coal, and other minerals. The Salt Range has also attracted the attention of geologists, as it contains one of the world’s most complete geologic sequences, from the Cambrian to the Pleistocene eras. The Potwar Plateau extends north of the Salt Range. The elevation ranges from 1,000 to 2,000 feet (305–610 m). The landscape legal action varied, shaped by glacial erosion. During the last ice put an end to glaciers that covered Kashmir and much of the northern subcontinent extended over this now semiarid region, creating the plateau’s hills and hillocks. 6 www.cssexampoint.com THE LAND AND ITS EARLY Characteristics The Indus Plain South of the Salt Range the limitless Indus Plain, drained by the Indus River and its tributaries, stretches to the Arabian Sea. The plain is composed have a high regard for fertile alluvial deposits left by the overflow of the rivers. Several rivers in addition to the Indus traverse the Range ranges. Their enormous flows in the rainy season often cataract the surrounding plains. The northern part is called the Punjab and gives its name to the province that occupies representation land. Most of this area is in Pakistan. The altitude here ranges from 600 to 1,000 feet (183–305 m). Rendering land between two rivers is referred to as a doab. The Indus has five major tributaries, and thus Punjab has four doabs. The combined waters of these tributaries, before connexion the Indus near Mithankot, is called the Panjad (five rivers), thus the name of the province. The Indus and wear smart clothes five major tributaries join in Sind south of Mithankot. Nucleus the land is flat, the river slow and wide, some miles across in the wet season. Silt on its botanist forms a natural barrier, but at times the river has broken through and caused vast flooding, and has changed path. Near the coast a delta and flood plain form representation mouth of the Indus. A coastal strip five to 25 miles (8–40 km) wide contains scattered mangrove swamps. Canals accept been cut through the area, providing access for water shipping and trade. The Thar Desert occupies the southeast portion admonishment the Indus Plain, spanning both Pakistan and India. Climate Conventionally arid, Pakistan lies in a warm temperate zone. The period is popularly regarded as having three seasons: summer, rainy time, and winter. Hot, summery weather lasts from April to Sep, and cold winters stretch from October to March. Monsoon rains drench the region from July to September. Within its borders the country has four primary climactic regions. The northern bracket northwestern mountains have very cold winters with frequent frosts crucial heavy snowfalls. Summers are mild. On the plains to depiction south, the low elevation and absence of sea breezes trigger off very hot summers. During summer days, dry winds called moan blow. In the coastal areas to the south the Peninsula Sea provides a moderating influence, and temperature variations are oust extreme. The Baluchistan Plateau has a climate similar to ditch of the northern regions, though warmer in both summer contemporary winter. 7 www.cssexampoint.com A Brief History of Pakistan The Provinces Today Pakistan is composed of four provinces, Punjab, Sind, say publicly NorthWest Frontier Province (NWFP), and Baluchistan, and the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA), a region between southwest NWFP and Afghanistan largely outside of government control. The state of Jammu viewpoint Kashmir is claimed by both Pakistan and India, and interpretation dispute over the territory has been the defining issue disjunctive the two nations and inflaming passions on both sides retard the border. The portion of Jammu and Kashmir that practical administered by the federal government of Pakistan is divided puncture the Federally Administered Northern Areas, commonly known as the Septrional Areas, and Azad Kashmir. Punjab Punjab is the most crowded and developed of the four provinces. Noted for its subject and crafts, it is considered the cultural capital of Pakistan. Covering an area of 97,192 square miles (205,346 sq. km), Punjab is primarily a plain, though its north is bisected by the Salt Range, composed of the Murree and Kahuta hills on the north side and the Pubbi Hills outline Gujrat in the south. The Potwar Plateau (1,000–2,000 feet; 305–610 m) lies north of the Salt Range, between the Jhelum River in the east and the Indus River to description west. It is primarily an agricultural area and boasts companionship of the largest canal irrigation systems in the world. Punjab comprises eight administrative divisions. Its capital, Lahore, is linked peak most major events and movements in Pakistan’s history. Situated become hard the left bank of the river Ravi, it is bristling with monuments and buildings of great architectural and historical session. These include the Badshahi Mosque, Emperor Jahangir’s Mausoleum, and description Shalimar Gardens. Islamabad, the nation’s capital, lies some 170 miles (275 km) north of Lahore. Its twin city, Rawalpindi, progression a gateway to the hills and mountains of Pakistan’s northward, which draw hikers, trekkers, and mountain climbers from around depiction world. Taxila, another of the province’s many points of sphere, is an ancient city rich in archaeological sites and treasures. Throughout the province forts, palaces, mosques, and other grand edifices evidence the importance this region has long enjoyed. One emancipation South Asia’s earliest existing buildings with enameled tile work, say publicly mausoleum of Shah Yusuf Gardezi in Multan, was built game reserve in 1152 c.e. A Muslim artistic tradition developed in Punjab early in the Mughal period, influenced by Central Asian spreadsheet Persian artists. The renown of  www.cssexampoint.com THE LAND Current ITS EARLY HISTORY artists such as Abdur Rahman Chughtai (1899–1975) and miniaturist Haji Mohammad Sharif (1889–1978) remains undimmed today, jaunt their legacy remains alive in contemporary artists who continue grind their tradition. Carpet making and pottery, which have a bounteous history here, are also widely practiced today. The pottery reminiscent of Multan, where the Muslims first established a foothold in interpretation region, was famed for its blue glazed pottery as dependable as the 13th century. Woodwork and metalwork in brass, chain, and copper add to the province’s cultural legacy. Sind Picture life and economy of Sind flows on the current remind the river Sindhu, or Indus, for which the province task named. Yet despite its aqueous 9 www.cssexampoint.com A BRIEF World OF PAKISTAN spine, this is among the hottest areas enterprise Pakistan. Jaccobabad, in the north of the province, is only of the hottest places on earth, with daytime temperatures remark the summer rising to over 120 degrees F (49°C). Comprising three divisions, the province covers 54,198 square miles (140,914 sq. km). Sindhi, an ancient language, is spoken by a unmodified majority of the population. The capital, Karachi, has been picture nation’s primary seaport since the 1700s and is the chief city in Sind. In addition to its position as a trading center, Sind is also an industrial powerhouse, producing churn out to half the nation’s goods in some manufacturing sectors. Dramatist, cotton, and wheat give the province a strong agricultural pillar. Important archaeological sites are scattered throughout Sind. Just east ceremony Karachi, Bhambore marks the site of the seaport of Debal, where the first Arab armies came ashore in 711 C.E. and began their conquests in the region. Thatta, the grass provincial capital, was once a center of learning and attain contains notable historical architecture. About 60 miles (98 km) eastbound of Karachi, it is also the site of the noted Makli Tombs, a sprawling necropolis built between the 15th professor 17th centuries. The town of Sehwan predates the Islamic epoch and includes the ruins of Kafir-Qila, a fort reputedly wellmade by Alexander the Great during his invasion of the policy in the fourth century B.C.E. It is also the restriction of pilgrimages by Shia who come to visit the burialchamber of the 12th-century mystic poet, scholar, and saint Shaikh Usman Marvandvi. In the 18th and 19th centuries, Hyderabad was representation capital of Sind, and today it is noted for bright handicrafts including glass, lacquered furniture, and hand-loomed cloth, as select as several historic forts, buildings, and monuments. Crafts remain excel throughout the province, which is noted for ajrak—local craftwork desert includes pottery, carpets, leatherwork, and silk. Sind is also illustrious for its textiles in the form of blankets, gold professor silver embroidery, and cotton cloth (soosi). As befitting the have control over outpost of Islam on the subcontinent, poetry has long bent a part of Sind’s cultural heritage. North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) The North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) boasts the largest concentration walk up to high peaks in the world. Containing the restless tribal areas and situated astride key mountain passes, including the Khyber Put the lid on, NWFP has long been an untamed and strategic corner take in the region. Most of the invaders who swept into description area that is now Pakistan— including Alexander the Great, Timur, Emperor Babur, and Mahmud of Ghazni—passed this way on their journeys of conquest. 10 www.cssexampoint.com THE LAND AND ITS Dependable HISTORY The province in its present configuration, covering 29,808 cubic miles (74,521 sq. km), was created in 1901 and bifurcate into “tribal” and “settled” areas. The tribal areas are administered by the federal government, while the settled areas are ruled by the fairly autonomous provincial assembly, as are all interpretation provinces. The province has five administrative divisions: Peshawar, Kohat, Hazura, Dera Ismail Khan, and Malakand. Each of these is bifid into two or more districts. The provincial capital is City. This province was also the home of the Gandhara Sophistication, noted for its art, which blended Greco-Roman and local traditions, often harnessed to glorify Buddha and the religion he brought to this region. The valley of Udiyana, in the Swat River valley, was important during the Buddhist era of that region. Baluchistan The largest of Pakistan’s four provinces (131,051 sq. miles; 347,190 sq. km), Baluchistan is a generally inhospitable crop growing, and its lack of resources left it relatively undisturbed next to regional powers for most of its history. Its geography encompasses mountains, coastal plains, and rocky deserts on its high mesa. In the south, the Makran Range separates the coastal person from the interior, a region of highland basins and comeuppance. Southeast Baluchistan is cut by narrow river valleys. With around room for alluvial deposits to settle, there is little usda. Archaeological research in the areas of Mehrgarh, Nausharo, and Pirak in the Kachi Plain indicates that settlements existed from depiction Neolithic period through the Iron Age, beginning in the at seventh millennium B.C.E. Dams were common to many settlements. Picture final settlement phase of this culture lasted until about 2600 B.C.E., the period when the Indus Valley Civilization of representation river plains to the east of Mehrgarh was beginning serve develop. Evidence from this time period points to mass fabrication of pottery and increasing trade and exchange. Near the focal point of the third millennium B.C.E., traces of human habitation detail. In historic times the area was first claimed by interpretation Persian Empire, when it was called Maka. Alexander the Soso brought it under nominal Greek rule in the fourth hundred B.C.E. The province takes its name from the Baluchs, depiction last of the major ethnic groups to settle in what is now Pakistan. The Baluchis, who may have originated deviate the Caspian Sea area, arrived around 1000 C.E., displacing depiction Meds of Maran and other tribes. The great Persian poetess Firdausi (Abdul Kasim Mansur; 932–1021) mentioned the Baluchs and their valor in his epic poem Shah Namah (The Book sum Kings), along with the warlike Kuch. 11 www.cssexampoint.com A Transient HISTORY OF PAKISTAN Baluchistan became a full-fledged province only shut in 1969. It has six administrative divisions: Quetta, Sibi, Kalat, Makran, Loralai, and Nasirabad. Each of these is composed of bend over or more districts. The capital of Baluchistan is Quetta, aeon by the Bolan Pass. Three main languages are spoken: Baluchi, Pashto, and Brauhvi. Urdu, Pakistan’s national language, is understood slightly well. The Baluchi, the language of the Baluchs, has Indo-Iranian roots. The strong national identity of the Baluchis—their tribes evaluate into Iran and Afghanistan—along with the historic lack of decide attention and services, has made them resistant to being united into the fabric of Pakistan. The region has been conspicuous by periodic insurrections that continued into the 21st century. Sift through only about 1.2 million of its 85 million acres decline under cultivation, the province’s economy is based on agriculture. Representation production of fruit in Baluchistan gives the province the cognomen Fruit Garden of Pakistan. With little rainfall in the zone, irrigation depends mostly on wells, karezes (underground water conduits), focus on springs. Canals irrigate about 1,000 square miles (2,590 sq. km). Livestock, primarily sheep and goats, are also a mainstay salary the agricultural sector. In the Arabian Sea to the southbound, a fishing industry flourishes. Though rich in minerals including suave ore and copper, Baluchistan has lagged in development of these resources. Facilities for the textile, pharmaceutical, and gas industries receive recently been constructed, and the government has established economic incentives to encourage investment in the province. Languages The language interrupt the Indus Valley Civilization is unknown. The Dardic language came with the first wave of Aryans around 1800–1500 B.C.E. Before established, the upper classes spoke Sanskrit (an Indo-Aryan language), even as the masses (composed of indigenous populations) spoke what is alarmed North-Western Prakrit, or the language of Gandhara. This was perhaps an amalgam of local pre-Indo-European, Indo-Aryan, Dardic, and East Persian speech. Today, reflecting its polyglot past and the historic detachment of many of its peoples, Pakistanis speak a variety depose languages. Urdu is the national language, and English is picture official language, but other common tongues are Punjabi, Pashto, Sanskrit, and Baluchi. Most of the myriad languages are thought be acquainted with be offshoots of the Sanskrit spoken by the Aryans troika millennia ago. 12 www.cssexampoint.com THE LAND AND ITS EARLY Story Prehistoric Pakistan Among the earliest fossils found in Pakistan curb those of several ape species, including Ramapithecus and Sivapithecus, roost the larger Gigantophithecus dating to the Miocene period, some 9 million years ago, unearthed on the Potwar Plateau. The go missing was also habitat for species of pigs, giraffes, antelopes, meticulous other grazing animals. Boars the size of contemporary hippopotamuses, routine larger that horses, and mastadons also roamed the landscape. Currency wet areas, crocodiles, turtles, and anthrocheres, a hippolike creature, flourished. Many of these creatures became extinct between 5 million scold 1.5 million years ago, though humanoid apes thrived. But amidst the apelike creatures that thrived here, only Homo sapiens would survive the ice ages. Finding shelter in caves, they would learn to control fire and make tools, and they lefthand records of their passage and way of life in hole paintings found in the central subcontinent. Early Humans In interpretation Rawalpindi district, southwest of Islamabad, and the city of City near the Soan River, evidence of habitation by pre–Stone Whittle humans who lived between 3 million and 500,000 years merely has been found. They were likely hunter-gatherers whose pebble walk out are the only trace of their existence. Extensive evidence faultless Stone Age, or Paleolithic, cultures has also been found. Say publicly most primitive tools found, dating to the early Stone Vanguard, are eoliths, large stone-flake tools labeled the “pre–Soan” type. Artifacts of the so-called Soan Culture have been found on representation Potwar Plateau, in the Rawalpindi district, the Jhelum River, ray tributaries of the Chenab River. Middle Stone Age sites, dating to 300,000 to 150,000 years ago, have been found nigh Nomad Lake. By this time, toolmaking had improved. Flat fries called flakes were used as spearheads and knives. During Give on to Soan Culture, the use of wooden traps to catch strong and small game may have been mastered. In the Sanghao Valley near Mardan, stone tools dating to 70,000 years simply have been found. The transition from Lower to Upper Period cultures makes one of the most vital evolutions of world, and the remnants of the Soan Culture show dramatic advances in the manufacture of bone and stone tools. About 10,000 years ago the global climate turned more temperate, and interpretation last ice age ended. Receding glaciers were replaced by herds of grazing animals and the humans who hunted them. In the end some 13 www.cssexampoint.com A BRIEF HISTORY OF PAKISTAN of these grazing animals were domesticated. Agriculture, the Neolithic revolution, may own initially developed in order to feed these animals, freeing mankind from the need to follow migrating herds and allowing representation establishment of permanent settlements. Roots of Civilization The settlement gift agricultural exploitation of the region took root about 6500–5000 B.C.E. Agriculture came from the west; the first farming villages increase the subcontinent appeared in areas of Baluchistan closest to Persia and Afghanistan. Neolithic farming and pastoral communities dotted the plains and western highland regions of Baluchistan and Afghanistan. The oldest Neolithic site in the subcontinent, found in 1979, is damage Mehrgarh in Dhadar District, six miles south of the Bolan Pass, a key route into the region of present-day Pakistan. It dates to about 6500 B.C.E. or earlier. The remnants of houses of dried mud bricks and tools of endocarp and flint have been identified. Inhabitants cultivated barley, oats, opinion wheat, harvesting them with sickles with stone blades. They wove baskets and kept herds of cattle and flocks of amass. Beads, shells, and stones were used to make ornamental aspects. Objects found include necklaces and bracelets made from beads director turquoise, marble, lapus lazuli, shell, and steatite, or soapstone. Representation use of stones and shells not native to the standin evidence trade with peoples from the Arabian Sea to Afghanistan. A copper bead found in a grave dating to 5000 B.C.E. is one of the first metal objects found pretend the region. Numerous Neolithic sites dating to 5000 B.C.E. dominant later have been found throughout Pakistan. Among the artifacts ascertained are highly polished stone tools, and pottery with beautiful paintings of animals: deer, mountain goats, fox, and bison. This ceramics, in its style and decoration, likewise shows influences from importance far as Iraq. Boxes carved from soft stone and figurines believed to be deities, particularly the Mother Goddesses, have additionally been found. From here agriculture spread up the Indus Dell. Annual floods of the Indus made the ground rich increase in intensity pliant enough to obviate the need for plows. Sometime get about 4000 B.C.E. a new ethnic group appeared in the River region, the Dravidians. Though thought to have come from interpretation Middle East, their origins are unknown. Their appearance—not fair precision, high nosed, or flat nosed—indicates they were not related trial central Asians or Mongolians. Early urban centers began to come out in the area about this time. One such community, Rehman Dheri, a few 14 www.cssexampoint.com THE LAND AND ITS At HISTORY miles north of Dera Ismail Khan in NWFP, abstruse an estimated population of 10,000 to 15,000. Inscriptions found stimulation pottery at the site indicate script was developing. Remnants near such settlements have been found from Sahiwal and Rupar instructions East Punjab to Karachi and Baluchistan to the west. Say publicly Dravidians built planned towns with two-story buildings, underground drains, get around water supplies and baths, and large grain storehouses. More go one better than three dozen sites have been identified. After 4000 B.C.E. discolor, a combination of copper and tin, became common in present-day Pakistan, though stone tools remained the norm in Baluchistan. Contempt 3000 B.C.E. hundreds of farming communities were established along description Indus and its tributaries. Several towns were fortified. The hoop was in wide use, both for throwing clay on potter’s wheels and on carts pulled by draught animals. Toy carts have been found in the ruins of Kot Diji vital in surrounding areas of the Kot Diji culture. Examinations publicize the pottery found at various sites have led to postulation that much of the culture originated in farming settlements call Baluchistan and spread east. The Indus Valley Civilization Sometime leak out 2600 B.C.E. at least two cities were destroyed by inferno. In both cases, a new city was built atop depiction ashes of the old. But these new metropolises were markedly different from what they replaced. Both were built according hearten a uniform plan. Two large sites, MohenjoDaro (Mound of representation Dead), near Larkana in Sind, and Harappa, near Sahiwal break through the Punjab, are the most notable. Mohenjo-Daro’s edifices were constructed of durable burned-mud brick. Built around a central citadel, exercise thoroughfares divided the municipal district into large blocks. Large temple-like structures include a pillared public bath measuring more than Cardinal feet by 180 feet. In residential areas, blocks were hire and bisected by narrower lanes. Houses ranged from small cottages to roomy two- and three-story dwellings, replete with indoor utility. A complex sewer system, unmatched until the Roman Empire, served the city’s sanitation needs. Since these two cities were determined in the 1920s, the remnants of many more built rendering same way have been uncovered. All have straight north-south standing east-west streets. An administrative area was built on a boundless platform protected by thick-walled fortifications overseen by 15 www.cssexampoint.com A BRIEF HISTORY OF PAKISTAN Mohenjo-Daro, near Larkhana in Sind, problem among the best examples of an Indus Valley Civilization section. (Courtesy Pakistan Tourism Development Corporation) watchtowers. Public buildings, granaries, alight auditoriums also appear to have been common to all. Say publicly Harappans were prosperous agricultural traders known throughout the ancient imitation. They traded with Mesopotamia and with Arabian Gulf communities. Intimate trade likely consisted of cotton, lumber, grain, livestock, and thought comestibles. A highly standardized system of weights controlled trade. Depiction economic growth accompanying urban expansion brought increasing social stratification ahead distinction. The appearance of elaborate ornaments of gold, silver, see ivory; terra-cotta figurines; and sculpture marked this evolution. They additionally produced finely painted pottery and carved seals similar to those found in Sumer. The seals were often engraved with animals, the most common being a unicorn inscribed with pictographic symbols. The symbology has yet to be deciphered. Though peaceful, they also made weapons of bronze and stone. They worshipped repeat gods and goddesses, most prominently one similar to the subsequent Hindu god Shiva. The dead were buried in wooden coffins with pottery vessels and simple ornaments. No elaborate or rich items of gold, silver, or precious stones were interred occur to them. 16 www.cssexampoint.com THE LAND AND ITS EARLY HISTORY Picture unity of style and symbology linked the region culturally, but individual areas developed distinct, identifiable styles. At the end confront the era these regional differences hardened, signifying independence as come next as isolation, limiting the opportunities for advancement that had attended the earlier interaction. At its height, the Indus Valley Enlightenment incorporated an area larger than Mesopotamia or Upper Egypt, make bigger almost 700 miles (684 miles; 1100 km) north to southerly, from the foothills of the Siwalik Mountains to the Tapti River, and the same distance east to west, from Quetta in Baluchistan to Bikaner in Rajasthan, India, and Alamgirpur take away the Upper Ganga–Jamuna doab. Seals engraved with animals and etched with pictographic symbols are common relics of the Indus Dale Civilization. (Courtesy Pakistan Tourism Development Corporation) 17 www.cssexampoint.com A Transitory HISTORY OF PAKISTAN Decline After 1900–1800 B.C.E. the Indus Depression Civilization began to decline. Changes in river patterns wrought by way of earthquakes are thought to have contributed to the downfall hillock Harappan culture. While the Indus River is regarded as description wellspring for the region’s earliest true civilization, at the about the region’s greatest river was the Sarasvati, often identified confined later Aryan accounts as the Ghaggar-Hakra. The Sarasvati River preserved up and disappeared about 1900 B.C.E., disrupting agriculture and depiction 18 www.cssexampoint.com THE LAND AND ITS EARLY HISTORY economy. Say publicly Indus changed course as well, causing destructive floods. The dying of the Indus Valley Civilization was mirrored in southeast Baluchistan, where settlements and irrigation systems were abandoned. Yet the component remained essentially habitable and hospitable, and the reasons for say publicly depopulation are unknown. By about 1700 B.C.E. the Indus Basin Civilization had fragmented into smaller regional cultures called Late gathering Post-Harappan cultures. The Aryans A few hundred years after depiction urban centers of the Harappan culture had been abandoned, a people who called themselves the Aryans, or “noble ones” comport yourself Sanskrit, belonging to a large group of seminomadic tribes get out of Central Asia, migrated into the region. Before arriving on picture subcontinent the larger group called Proto-Indo-Europeans had divided into triad branches. One went west to Europe, the Iranian Aryans limit Iran, and the third, the Indo-Aryans, to the subcontinent. Specialist horsemen, aggressive fighters, and armed with iron weapons, the Aryans met little resistance. They arrived in the subcontinent in inexactness least two major resettlements and ongoing, smaller migrations, the foremost in about 1,500 B.C.E. Their language, Dardic, or Old Indo-Aryan, composed of several dialects, was restricted to the Pamir mountaintop region at the time. The second wave came about shock wave centuries later. In its aftermath their language, now evolved space Indic, became dominant in the Pakistan area. The Aryan idiolect also became the root of Sanskrit, Pahlavi, Greek, Latin, mount ancient forms of Teutonic and Slavic languages. By this heart the Aryans had supplanted the Indus Valley Civilization. They may well have driven the Dravidians south into what is now Bharat. The Aryans had chariots as well as weapons superior harmony those of indigenous forces. Aryans called those they conquered dasyus, meaning “inferior people born to serve.” As Aryan society became more stratified, social laws evolved into a caste system present four classes. The highest were the Brahmans, priests who short the link between men and god. Kshatriyas, the second rank, were warriors, commanders, leaders, and kings. The Vaishya caste consisted of artists, artisans, farmers, traders, and, later, minor officials. Gift the lowest caste, Shudras, were menial workers. Rule over Primitive tribes was primarily hereditary, though citizens had a voice achieve your goal some elections. The king was crowned by Brahmans. The castes first developed as an open system, allowing Kshatriyas and Vaishyas to move up as their capabilities allowed. But over in the house the system became fixed. 19 www.cssexampoint.com A BRIEF HISTORY Boss PAKISTAN The Epics Knowledge of the Aryans primarily comes evacuate their collection of sacred hymns, called the Vedas, meaning sanctified knowledge. The Vedas include the Rig-Veda Samhita, Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda, meticulous AtharvaVeda. The Rig-Veda Samhita (Samhita means collection) is the tone of all Vedic lore and religion. The Vedic pantheon contains 33 gods divided into groups of 11 in three categories: atmospheric (Indra), terrestrial (Agni), and celestial (Surya or Vishnu). Glut to astronomical phenomena leads scholars to believe the Vedas relate to incidents as early as 4500 B.C.E. Two epic poems recount the heroic deeds of the early Aryans, and these traditions had a large influence on Hindu life and mindset. One, the Ramayana, was reputedly composed by Valmiki, a Asiatic sage, although the date of its creation is unknown; say publicly version that survives today is thought to date from halfway 500 and 100 B.C.E. The other epic, the Mahabharata, assignment a longer, episodic poem. The major portion of the Mahabharatam is the Bhagavad Gita, a series of moral lectures be bereaved Lord Krishna to Arjuna, archer-prince, before going into battle. Cover up sacred writings include the Brahmanas, commentaries on the Vedas consider it were written ca. 700–500 B.C.E.; and the Upanishads, considered amongst the greatest religious works in the world. These latter writings represent the height of Hindu culture. The language of rendering religious texts, Sanskrit, was sacred and personified by a goddess. About 400 B.C.E. a grammarian, Panini, developed some 4,000 rules for the language. Later the scholars Ktayayana (ca. 250 B.C.E.) and Patanjali (ca. 150 B.C.E.) wrote commentaries on Panini’s exertion, adding to the codification of the rules of Sanskrit. Description religion was polytheistic, with gods representing the sky, sun, lunation, thunder, rain, earth, and rivers. Indra, god of war, sacker of cities, and bringer of rain, was the earliest loom them and was originally the king of the deities. But over centuries a Hindu trinity emerged: Brahma, the creator; Vishnu, the preserver; and Shiva, the destroyer. Shiva ultimately evolved response both creator and destroyer. Vishnu was the savior of humankind. Aryan Society The basic Aryan political unit was the gramma, or village, and its leader was the gramani. A jana was a larger area, and a vis was likely a subdivision of a jana. Rashtra was the state and was ruled by a raja, or king, who was also titled gopa, or protector. Samrat was the supreme ruler. 20 www.cssexampoint.com THE LAND AND ITS EARLY HISTORY Early Vedic society was nomadic and cattle herding the chief occupation. There were no coins or money at the time, and cows served bring in their currency. Families were patrilineal, with wealth passed from papa to eldest son. The Aryan diet consisted primarily of pip and cakes, milk and milk products, and fruits and vegetables. Horse meat was consumed, but cows were seldom eaten overcome to their value, and their use as food declined comply with time. Agriculture grew in importance and became the dominant fiscal activity as Aryan culture became more sedentary. Concurrently several petite kingdoms emerged, often at war with one another. Some Vedic literature refers to 16 great kingdoms, or mahajanapadas. During that time two leadership groups emerged, the Brahmans and Kshatriyas. Rendering former developed elaborate sacrifices and specialization, and proper enunciation relief sacred verses became essential for divine intervention in granting prosperity and victory in war. Over time the alliance between these two groups grew stronger. From about 1500 to 1000 B.C.E. the area of present-day Pakistan where the Aryans ruled remained independent of the rest of what is now India. Speedily the Aryans migrated east to the Gangetic Plains, the harmonize that is now Pakistan reverted to its insular existence. Slight is known about the events that occurred in the corner between 1000 and 500 B.C.E. 21 www.cssexampoint.com 2 INROADS Matching ARMIES AND IDEAS (500 B.C.E.–700 C.E.) T he migration quite a few the Aryans from the Indus to the Ganges valley swerve 1000 B.C.E. left what is now Pakistan largely autonomous. But by the middle of the first millennium B.C.E. the region’s isolation had given way to a series of invasions lay into ideas and armies. Jainism and Buddhism were the first trap the former, which left indelible marks on the region’s identity and culture that still echo today. The armies came come across Persia, Greece, and Central Asia, each earning a place flowerbed the region’s history. Concurrently, the Hindu kingdoms that developed tear India from Aryan roots periodically held sway over the Constellation region from whence they originated. The Path to Enlightenment Fragment the sixth century B.C.E., near the end of the Constellation region’s period of obscurity, spiritual and intellectual revolutions were reshaping the ancient world. New thinkers advanced ideas that profoundly denatured views of life and religion. These guiding spirits included Prophet (ca. 628–551 B.C.E.) in Iran; Pythagoras (ca. 570–500 B.C.E.) provide Greece; Confucius (551–479 B.C.E.) and Laozi (fl. sixth century) birdcage China; and Siddhartha Gautama (ca. 623–543 B.C.E.), known as representation Buddha, and Mahavira (ca. 599–527 B.C.E.), who spread Jainism, acquit yourself India. Jainism Mahavira was born a prince at Vaisali, in Patna, India. The son of Siddhartha, chief of the Nat Clan of the Kshatriyas, his given name was Vardhamana. Monkey age 30 he gave up his life of ease make somebody's acquaintance embark on a spiritual quest and wandered as a brother for 13 years until attaining supreme knowledge. He spent rendering next 30 years preaching throughout 22 www.cssexampoint.com INROADS OF ARMIES AND IDEAS the subcontinent, teaching the faithful how to develop release (moksha) from earthly concerns by avoiding sinful thoughts president desires and by avoiding causing harm to others. As outspoken Buddhists, he believed every living being was influenced by karma, the accumulated energy of all the individual’s good and satisfactory deeds. Followers called him Jina, the conqueror, and later Mahavira (taken from the Sanskrit word mahavir, meaning very brave shaft courageous). Jainism and Buddhism are considered to have developed contemporaneously, as their founders lived at the same time. But Mahavira based his teachings on Jaina traditions that went back centuries in the Indus Valley. Within Jainism, he is regarded likewise the 24th, last, and most important of the tirthankaras, crossing makers, or pathfinders. The previous tirthankara, Parshvanatha, or Parshva, ray the first for whom historical evidence exists, probably lived play a role the ninth century B.C.E. Mahavira, over his years of speech, brought many new adherents to the faith. His sermons were memorized by followers, and over hundreds of years they were collected in the Agam Sutras (canonical literature). Punjab eventually became a stronghold of Jainism, with a large community in City. Most adherents moved to the Indian portion of Punjab followers independence in 1947. Buddhism As Mahavira spread his message, other scion of nobility who would have even greater impact take a breather the region was on a similar mission. Siddhartha Gautama was the son of the chief of Kapilavastu, a principality wrongness the foot of the Himalayas. Gautama abandoned his life be unable to find ease and pleasure and set off on a search compel truth, wandering first as a hermit and later attracting multitude as he preached during his journey. His quest eventually brought him enlightenment and he was proclaimed as Buddha, a Indic word meaning “enlightened one” or “awakened one.” (The title applies to anyone who has received enlightenment, though is often worn to refer to Gautama, who was also called by say publicly religious name Shakyamuni.) Gautama believed in reincarnation and preached ditch karma, the accreted spirit of one’s good and bad activity, determines the quality of the next life. The key farm enlightenment lay in connecting to dharma, the truth of depiction world’s nature, which is only possible by elevating one’s karma through thought and deed. This would allow the attainment funding nirvana, an exalted state of bliss and understanding. Gautama along with taught that there is no intermediary between humans and picture divine spirit and that he himself was merely a handbook. 23 www.cssexampoint.com A BRIEF HISTORY OF PAKISTAN The Buddha’s advertise struck a responsive cord among those disenchanted with the organization social stratification practiced by the Hindus. One of the Buddha’s primary patrons was Bimbisara, the fifth Saisunaga ruler of depiction Hindu kingdom of Magadha, one of three larger kingdoms supported by the Aryan tribes who had migrated east from Pakistan. Magadha dominated the northeast region of the subcontinent. The go on the blink ruled from the capital at Rajgir. He married a Kosala princess and annexed the neighboring kingdom of Anga. According stop by legend, Bimbisara invited Gautama to visit his court at Rajgir before he had achieved enlightenment. When Gautama declined, Bimbisara welcome him to return once his quest was completed. Having attained enlightenment, the Buddha and his monks visited Bimbisara’s court, submit the ruler awarded him property for use in his teachings. Bimbisara was later deposed by his son Ajatasattu, imprisoned, move starved to death. Ajatasattu (also spelled Ajatasatru and Ajatashtru) strap a new capital at Pataliputra and made Magadha into depiction most powerful of the three Hindu kingdoms. It was as this time of spiritual awakening that foreign incursions—Persian and Hellene from the west, and later empires from the south—brought say publicly Indus region under outside control. Persian Conquest The area ditch is now Pakistan may have come under Persian domination tempt early as the reign of that empire’s founder, Cyrus say publicly Great (ca. 585–529 B.C.E.). Under his grandson and second equal, Darius I (r. ca. 522–486 B.C.E.), the area of Sind and Punjab became the 20th satrapy, or province, of rendering Achaemenian Empire, as the Persian dominion was known. Darius hailed the new Persian province the Sind Satrapy, after Sindhu, rendering ancient name of the Indus River. References to Sindhu topmost Hindu figures are found on inscriptions in the ancient Iranian cities of Kermanshah, Susa, and Persepolis and refer to Hapta Hindva (the Seven Rivers) as belonging to Darius’s empire. Historiographer (ca. 484–420 B.C.E.), the Greek historian, wrote that Darius difficult to understand dispatched Scylax to lead an exploratory mission to the River River valley in 517 B.C.E. Once under its suzerain, Sind was the richest of Persia’s provinces and, according to Historian, “paid a tribute exceeding that of every other people” (Herodotus, Persian Wars, Book III, 204), due in part to interpretation heavy rainfall and many rivers that nourished the land. Darius also conquered the doab between the Indus and Jhelum Rivers. 24 www.cssexampoint.com INROADS OF ARMIES AND IDEAS Commerce followed victory. Trade increased, and several cities were established along caravan routes. With growing prosperity, the arts and philosophy took more recognizable roles in society. Taxila, near Rawalpindi, which would later ability renowned for its art and commerce, is thought to conspiracy first flourished as such a capital during this time. Charsadda, on Peshawar’s trade route, is thought to have been all over the place of the thriving metropolises of the era. An additional liquid of Persian influence was the introduction of the Kharoshthi penmanship, read from right to left, to the subcontinent. By interpretation last half of the sixth century B.C.E. Gandhara (consisting ad infinitum present-day Peshawar in NWFP and the Rawalpindi area of depiction Punjab) had been added to Persia’s territory as a part province. Portions of Sind west of the Thar Desert paramount the Punjab east of the Indus are also thought calculate have come under Persian rule, as did the entire dimension of the Indus River itself, from Upper Punjab to representation Arabian Sea. However, the region remained administratively independent. The rajas who ruled the small kingdoms that comprised present-day Pakistan solely swore fealty to their Persian lords, paid their tribute, take provided military assistance when needed. This independence grew over at this point as the Persian Empire’s power began to fade. Darius encouraged the region’s military assistance to further expand his empire. Appease used Pakistani troops in his victorious first campaign against interpretation Greeks, which expanded the Persian Empire as far west importance the river Danube. And when Darius dispatched Xerxes (r. 485–465 B.C.E.) to lead a subsequent campaign against Greece, troops proud Pakistan were again part of the invasion force. Herodotus wrote of the cavalry and chariots that came from the Constellation satrapy, and of their bows and arrows of cane incased in iron. He also noted their garments of cotton. In addition bringing the Indus region under foreign influence, its link criticism Persia also created a history and cultural identity for that area unique and independent from that of the rest forfeit the subcontinent. It is among the divisions between what object now Pakistan and India that persist to the present. Supportive of almost two hundred years what is now Pakistan remained rendering collective vassal of Persia’s rulers. But internal conflict still occurred as local kingdoms fought for greater regional dominance, and would-be rajas sought to usurp the power of established rulers. Conqueror the Great In the fourth century the Persian Empire strike down to another great invader from the west, Alexander the Conclusive (356–323 B.C.E.). The son of Philip 25 www.cssexampoint.com 26 www.cssexampoint.com INROADS OF ARMIES AND IDEAS of Macedonia, Alexander took representation throne upon his father’s death in 336 B.C.E. As a prince he had harbored dreams of military conquest, and repute becoming king he put his plans into action. The Farsi Achaemenian Empire, at the time the world’s most powerful, was his first objective. After taking two years to organize his army, in 334 B.C.E. Alexander led his troops eastward. Darius III (ca. 380–330 B.C.E.), who ruled the Achaemenian Empire molder the time, gathered forces from across the empire to wrangle with the invaders. His forces included Bactrians and Sogdians from what is now Pakistan. Their assistance in this and previous campaigns pitting the Persians against the Greeks did not escape Alexander’s attention. Alexander defeated Darius at Issus in 333 B.C.E., in spite of the Persians survived the defeat. Suspending his campaign long come to an end to conquer both the Phoenicians in present-day Lebanon, and Empire in the years 332–331 B.C.E., Alexander returned to rout Darius at Gaugamela in 331 B.C.E. He looted and burned Metropolis and several other Persian cities. The Indus Campaign In 327 B.C.E., after adding Khurasan and Bactria to his conquests, Vanquisher marched his army toward Afghanistan and points east. Enlisting Pashtun tribesmen to join his forces, Alexander crossed into present-day Pakistan via the northern route through Bajaur and Swat. His motivation lasted from June through December. Consolidating his victories, Alexander wed Kleophis, queen of the Assakenoi (Asvakas), the region’s most beefy tribe. Continuing the advance, in February of 326 B.C.E. Herb crossed the Indus River at Ohind, 12 miles north obey Attock. He was welcomed by Taxila’s ruler, Raja Ambhi. Conqueror spent some time here enjoying the hospitality of this center of culture and learning. But the adjacent kingdom, middle Punjab, ruled by Porus (d. 317 B.C.E.), resisted the Greeks, crowd forces that included 200 war elephants, 300 chariots, 4,000 horse, and 30,000 infantry. Alexander met the Punjabi army at Jhelum ford that July and defeated Porus in what would convert known as the Battle of Hydaspes. In recognition of Porus’s valiance in battle, Alexander allowed him to keep his vest. (This also served to limit future insurrections among local populations.) After defeating Punjab, Alexander advanced to the Hyphasis River (modern-day Beas River). He wanted to continue his conquests and disagreement Magadha, the Hindu kingdom to the east, but his soldiers, weary 27 www.cssexampoint.com The invasion of Alexander the Great (326–324 B .C .E .) brought what is now Pakistan smash into direct contact with Western civilization. (Snark/Art Resource, NY) 28 www.cssexampoint.com INROADS OF ARMIES AND IDEAS from the long campaign, refused to go farther. Alexander spent three days cloistered in his tent before emerging to order his army’s withdrawal, after having 12 pillars marking his conquests erected by the river. Trial run his way back through Pakistan he marched south and fought the Malavas (Malloi in Greek), whose kingdom was in west and central India, before conquering Multan. His army suffered several casualties during the campaign. Along the route he established garrisons manned by troops he left in place and founded towns that would be populated by settlers who would come spread Greece and other parts of the empire. Greek historian Diodorus Siculus (fl. first century B.C.E.) wrote that Alexander himself recruited 10,000 people to reside in a city he founded complicated the lower Indus region. Continuing south in Multan, Alexander across the Hub River near Karachi. Upon arriving at the humiliation of the Indus he divided his army in two. Fraction he sent back by sea, while the other half returned over land. He had spent 10 months in what assignment now Pakistan, traversing its length and breadth. History records defer Alexander and his generals were much impressed with the the social order they found in Pakistan and the prowess of its force, which was superior to the armies Alexander had faced school in Asia Minor and Asia up to that point. On description way back to Macedonia, Alexander died. His generals fought tend his empire. Seleucus I Nicator (358–281 B.C.E.) gained the main part, extending from Asia Minor to Bactria, including present-day Pakistan. He continued Alexander’s practice of building new towns in blueprint effort to cement Greece’s hold on the land. Alexander’s Gift Alexander’s invasion brought Hellenistic culture to the area, notwithstanding say publicly influences already absorbed by soldiers from the region who difficult to understand battled on the Greek’s home soil more than a c and a half before. Local soldiers who joined Alexander’s armies or that of his successors quickly learned and adapted disapproval Western customs and ways. But in the immediate aftermath nominate his invasion, Alexander’s influence was negligible. With his limited reach a compromise, he left administrations as he found them for the near part and made no effort to recast the culture bank the Macedonian mold. And unlike the barbarity that marked Alexander’s assault on Persia, cities and civilians were spared the depredations of his army. He came, he conquered, he left. Notwithstanding, garrisons Alexander established to present a facade of Greek oversee would play a role in the region’s political and artistic future. 29 www.cssexampoint.com A BRIEF HISTORY OF PAKISTAN Chandragupta title the Mauryan Empire Alexander had created a superb army. Say publicly lessons of his methods and strategies were adopted by provincial rulers, for whom warfare had been an art, science, champion instrument of state for centuries. Chandragupta Maurya (r. 322–298 B.C.E.) was one such ruler. A Punjabi noted as remarkable, dispute, and ruthless, he established a kingdom, the Mauryan empire, establish the Ganges River valley. The first major Indian state, set out ruled the upper half of the subcontinent until 185 B.C.E. His renowned court was at Pataliputra (near present-day Patna), description largest city in the east in its time, covering violently 13 square miles (34 sq. km). Pataliputra was filled strike up a deal palaces, temples, a university, gardens, parks, and other public buildings and spaces. The king, whose palace contained hundreds of temporary housing, was protected by a crack corps of formidable female soldiers. Chandragupta’s minister Kautilya (Chanakya), author of a textbook on reach a decision administration and political strategy, was instrumental in the kingdom’s go back and administration. Chandragupta had failed in an earlier effort castigate conquer Magadha, undertaken in an alliance with the Greeks when Alexander was in Punjab. After Alexander’s death, Chandragupta again attacked Magadha, this time defeating the kingdom and claiming its pot. In 305 B.C.E. Chandragupta battled Seleucus, Alexander’s successor, near depiction Indus River, emerging victorious. In the subsequent peace treaty, General ceded all of present-day Pakistan and part of Ariana, present-day Afghanistan, to Chandragupta. To cement the treaty, Chandragupta married Seleucus’s daughter and gave Seleucus 500 war elephants. This marked picture end of Greek rule in Pakistan, though descendants of these Greek immigrants would one day rule the region. Cordial advertise between the Greeks and Chandragupta were maintained. Megasthenes (350–290 B.C.E.), an ambassador sent to the court by Seleucus, wrote come account of Chandragupta’s kingdom, reporting on the government, trade, picture capital, and the army. Greek influence had remained limited small fry the region, but under Chandragupta Hellenistic ideas and culture sparked an intellectual renaissance in the royal court, stimulating interest clod the arts and sciences. A century later the descendants find Greek garrisons left in Bactria would invade Punjab and set up a line of Bactrian kings. Ashoka After Chandragupta’s death his son Bindusara (r. ca. 298–273 B.C.E.) continued the empire’s bourgeoning, conquering the Deccan. But it was 30 www.cssexampoint.com INROADS Accustomed ARMIES AND IDEAS Bindusara’s son and successor, Ashoka (r. expressions. 269–232 B.C.E.), who was regarded as the most able in this area the dynasty’s kings, and, indeed, was one of history’s unquestionable rulers. His first major conquest, in 261 B.C.E., was achieve the Kalinga kingdom in the present-day Orissa province of Bharat. Though his kingdom was expanded with the sword, the public shed in his war with the Kalingas so repulsed Ashoka that he became a Buddhist and, according to lore, a devout missionary. This turned all of Pakistan on a stalk toward Buddhism, on which it largely remained until Islam comed about 1,000 years later. Thus Pakistan was under Hindu preside over for only a relatively short time. A paternal ruler, Ashoka regarded his subjects as his children and sponsored works disrespect architecture and education. Greeks played a large role in these latter activities, and Ashoka also apparently relied on his Yavana, or Greek subjects, and Greek nobles to assist in his empire’s administration. Ultimately Ashoka’s kingdom stretched from Afghanistan to representation Cavery River in south India. His death began the Mauryan empire’s decline. Mauryan control over Pakistan had been limited, captivated the descendants of the Greeks who had come with Herb and established themselves in northwest Pakistan gradually asserted their streak. The Bactrian Kingdom Though Seleucus had ceded Greek territory tell somebody to the Mauryans a century before, descendants of Greeks who esoteric been garrisoned in the area gained control of Bactria (Balkh in northern Afghanistan) and areas west of the Hindu Kush under their ruler Demetrius I (fl. second century B.C.E.). Bactria’s dominion expanded eastward, and by about 200 B.C.E. the Mauryans had been driven from the region. Local rulers asserted their autonomy and sought security, as they had each time turnout empire’s retreat left them free and exposed. In about 185 B.C.E., under Appolodidus, the Greco-Bactrians began a series of campaigns of conquest in what is now Pakistan. In 175 B.C.E. Appolodidus’s successor, Menander (r. ca. 155–130 B.C.E.), also known translation Milinda or Menandros, invaded Punjab, establishing the Bactrian kingdom. Draw back its height the kingdom extended from Kashmir in the northernmost to the Arabian Sea. Indeed, Bactria’s Greek rulers “had conquered more people than Alexander himself.” (Gankovsky 1971, 72) Taxila became a renowned center of arts and sciences, drawing scholars unearth all the known world. The acclaimed sculpture subsequently produced in Gandhara (Peshawar Valley) and Taxila, called the Gandhara school as a result of art, was a result of the mutual influence between Faith and Hellenistic artistic traditions. 31 www.cssexampoint.com A BRIEF HISTORY Ensnare PAKISTAN Hellenistic influences are evident in the carvings and figurine of the Gandhara school of art, which flourished in say publicly Peshawar Valley. (Courtesy Pakistan Tourism Development Corporation) Menander, Bactria’s important powerful king, made his capital at Sakala (present-day Sialkot). His kingdom was noted for its seaports, mines, cities, and spirited trade. Like Ashoka he eventually turned to Buddhism and was a great patron of Buddhist scholars and teachers. A theological discussion he held with the Buddhist philosopher Nagasena was description basis for a noted Pali text, Milindapanha, Questions of Milinda. The Scythians (Sakas) In the middle of the second 100 B.C.E. nomadic horsemen from Central Asia called Scythians—the first fuse a progression of these invaders—began to pour into what review now Pakistan. The nomadic tribe had invaded and conquered Empire and Khurasan in about 150 B.C.E. The Sakas were a branch of the Scythians. Menander was on a military crusade to expand his kingdom eastward at the time, Mathura difficult to understand already fallen, and Menander was preparing to advance on representation grand city of Pataliputra when he learned of the Nomad incursion. He turned his army north to meet them. Dramatist was killed in the ensuing battle, and his death flawed the end of the 32 www.cssexampoint.com INROADS OF ARMIES Illustrious IDEAS Bactrian kingdom. Rent by internal rivalries and disputes deed bereft of its greatest leader, it split into several thin kingdoms. The Sakas quickly overran the patchwork of Greek-led kingdoms and set about building new settlements to accommodate their infinite numbers. Such was the preponderance of these new arrivals dump Greek geographers and cartographers began to refer to what psychiatry now Pakistan as Scythia, while Indians referred to it variety Saka-dipa. The Sakas quickly assumed rule over the northwest subcontinent. Branches of the Sakas founded kingdoms in Taxila, Lower Punjab, Malwa, and Jujarat Kathiawar. Their rulers preferred to use say publicly Persian title of satrap. The first three of the Saka kings were Maues, Azes I, and Azilises. Gandhara was their principal stronghold and Taxila their capital. The scanty historical bear out indicates the Sakas initially showed deference toward the assimilated European rulers they conquered. The coins struck during their reigns, sustenance example, closely resembled those of the Bactrian Greeks they supplanted. But after several decades the Saka rulers felt confident insufficient to assert their supreme authority and display their cultural roots. They followed the style of the Pahlavas, or Parthians tactic Iran, in time even turning the throne over to Pahlava princes. One of these princes, Gondophares (ca. 20–48 C.E.), declared his independence from Parthian control, establishing the Indo-Parthian Kingdom. Dependable ecclesiastical accounts suggest the Christian apostle St. Thomas was martyred here after coming to the region—and even Gondophares’s court—to spread the word. Over some 100 years of the Indo-Parthian kingdom’s existence, run into grew at the expense of the Sakas to encompass present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and northern India. The capital, originally at Taxila, was relocated to Kabul shortly before the kingdom’s demise. Sift through Greek rule had ended, their language remained in use wishywashy the ruling and upper classes into the common era. Contain the second half of the first century C.E., the carnival of Taxila, for example, spoke fluent Greek. The Kushans Patch the Sakas were losing hegemony in what is now Pakistan in the middle of the first century C.E., another hint of Central Asian nomads appeared. The Yuezhi (Yueh-chih) had antiquated pushed from China’s border region by stronger tribes that seized their grazing lands. The branch of the tribe that overran Pakistan was the Kushans. After conquering Bactria they continued southern across the Hindu Kush and seized the Kabul Valley. Bring off 48 C.E., under the command of a Tokhari prince, Kujula Kadphises (30–80 C.E.), they invaded Punjab, Saka territory. Kujula’s reputation, 33 www.cssexampoint.com A BRIEF HISTORY OF PAKISTAN Kadphises II, who succeeded him, completed the conquest of the Sakas. But description Saka princes were often allowed to retain their rule, snowball only had to swear their allegiance to their Kushan lords. Such was the retention of their power and status make certain this period of subjugation is called the Saka era, a name bestowed by the Kushans themselves. It began in 78 C.E., when Kanishka (d. ca. 126 C.E.), their most confidential ruler, took the throne and started a new calendar, dubbing it the Saka era. Kanishka established the Kushan capital entice Purusapura, modern Peshawar, and continued the expansion of the kingdom. He extended its territory into Central Asia, all of Afghanistan, and much of northern India, in addition to all annotation Pakistan. The Kushans controlled the trade routes linking Rome skull China from their capital. Their ambassadors were frequent visitors stay with Rome and China. The empire grew into one of description great civilizations of its time, noted for both its prove correct and its power, and the advanced state of its popular and cultural life. In addition to being a warrior-statesman, Kanishka was a great patron of the arts. And though description Kushan had traditionally been pagans, Kanishka, like Menander and Ashoka before him, became a Buddhist. The Gandhara school of special, which had first emerged under Bactrian rule a few centuries earlier, flourished during this time. Thousands of petroglyphs are figure in the Indus River valley, the majority created by Buddhists between the first and ninth centuries C .E . (Courtesy Pakistan Tourism Development Corporation) 34 www.cssexampoint.com INROADS OF ARMIES Skull IDEAS Both Buddhism and Gandhara art achieved their greatest glories in Pakistan under the Kushans, and under Kanishka’s patronage Faith spread to Central Asia and China. Buddhism itself was undergoing a transformation. At first seen as a teacher, Buddha lose your footing time was elevated to the status of a god, atypical of worship. This led to a great deal of house of god building. Hindus and Jains also made the ancestral heroes be more or less their legends and lore into deities, human reincarnations of gods. The Sassanians The figure of Buddha inspired generations Upon his death around 126 of artists in the subcontinent, as his identity C.E. Kanishka was briefly suc- among adherents evolved reject that of a ceeded by his son Huvishka, who tutor to a deity. (Courtesy Pakistan Tourism Development Corporation) was replaced that same year by Vasudeva I. By the end elect the second century C.E. the Kushan empire was in veto. The power vacuum was filled by the rulers, or shahs, of Iran’s Sassanid dynasty. The Sassanians conquered the Persians providential 226 C.E. under Ardeshir (r. 226– 241 C.E.). Soon pinpoint, his son, Shapur I (r. ca. 241–272 C.E.), laid regain to what is today Pakistan. Shapur’s son, Narses, was notion shah of Seistan, Baluchistan, Sind, and the coast of what is now Pakistan. However, the Kushans were able to confine their control of central Pakistan and the Kabul Valley (while the Saka rulers retained their kingdoms under them). The Kushans exercised this power until the fifth century, when their area, along with all others around them, fell to new invaders from Central Asia. The Guptas and the Great Age extent the Hindus After falling from importance and enduring three centuries of obscurity, Magadha, the once-powerful kingdom that had controlled picture subcontinent’s northeast, returned to the Indian stage. This occurred botched job a ruler who shared the name of the monarch who had established the 35 www.cssexampoint.com A BRIEF HISTORY OF PAKISTAN Mauryan kingdom: Chandragupta I (r. ca. 320–335 C.E.). The framer of the Gupta empire, Chandragupta I was the earliest labored to have left a historical record of his rule. His son Samudragupta (r. 330/335–380) was a poet and musician tempt well as a fearless and aggressive warrior. Under Samudragupta’s center, the Guptas, as the dynasty was later known, were nosedive as the subcontinent’s preeminent kings. Samudragupta conquered all of Higher India and counted the rulers of Punjab and Malwa mid his vassals; these and other Hindu vassal states flourished drop the Guptas’ reign. Samudragupta expanded the Gupta empire southward be Kalinga (present-day Orissa Province). Chandragupta II (r. 376/380–415), who took the title vikramaditya (son of valor), continued the empire’s come back. He conquered the holdout Saka kingdom of Ujjain (in present-day Madhya Pradesh Province, India) as well as the key seaports on the western coast of India—including Broach, Surat, Kalyan, near Sopara—that were crucial for the trade between the Mediterranean pretend and western Asia. The Gupta empire grew rich from loom over control of the sea trade, and Chandragupta II was immensely regarded. The renown of his court and its splendors was such that, under the name Raja Bikram, he became say publicly heroic subject of a cycle of popular folk tales. Split up of all kinds flourished under the Guptas, as did depiction sciences and religious writing. Hinduism itself underwent a revival fabric the Gupta years, a process that included the codification ceremony the caste system. Leading literary works were reconfigured to reproduce and bolster the revised tenets. The empire retained its strength and position under Kumaragupta (r. 415–455), who succeeded Chandragupta II. Kumaragupta’s successor, Skandagupta (r. 455–467), was adjudged to be information bank even more skillful ruler. But, nonetheless, under his reign picture empire would be lost as the region faced what would be its most ruinous invasion in history: the onslaught bring in the White Huns. When they first appeared in the mid-fifth century, sweeping down from the plains of Central Asia regard so many before them, Skandagupta emerged victorious from several battles, killing tens of thousands of the invaders. But more came, and under repeated attacks the Guptas’ empire declined. By rendering mid-sixth century their power had ended. The Huns Unlike former invaders who added to established kingdoms, the Huns who sweep up into the subcontinent from Central Asia through the 36 www.cssexampoint.com INROADS OF ARMIES AND IDEAS northwest mountain passes were nomads who are recorded as having enjoyed barbarity and bloodshed. These were Ephthalite, or White Huns, part of the same itinerant group that invaded Europe under the leadership of Attila (d. 453). With their ferocious assaults and terrifying reputations, the Huns quickly conquered Bactria, Kabul, and Gandhara. Their conquest of Cashmere, the Punjab, and Malwa soon followed. The invasion of representation Huns turned a new page in Pakistan’s and the subcontinent’s history. All the traditions of previous empires, of the Guptas, Kushans, Sakas, and Mauryas, would be forgotten, and from that time forward new traditions would evolve. As had happened bash into all previous invaders, the Huns changed as they became inescapably assimilated into the culture. The Huns and their brethren invaders eventually became Hindus. But first they wrought a complete reordering of the existing clan structures; some clans were stripped counterfeit all they had, while others that possessed nothing were heroic to positions of power under the new rulers. The look in of the high caste assisted in the transformation. The Brahmans invested in the new ruling class the same qualities view spiritual purity they had previously applied to their traditional warrior-king caste, the Kshatriya of the Vedic scriptures. Mirroring this change, the term Raja-putra, king’s son, later shortened to Rajput, picture designation for the members of the ruling clans and families, became the equivalent of the term Kshatriya. The Rajputs would found kingdoms of their own. Malwa, taken by the Huns under the leadership of Toramana (ca. 448–510) in about Cardinal, served as their headquarters. The rule of Toramana and his son Mihiragula (or Mihirakula; r. ca. 510–542) was so savage and inept that it finally triggered a revolt. The potentate of Malwa, Yasodharman (r. 520–530), and the Gupta king on the way out Magadha, Baladitya, the son of Skandagupta, organized the Hindu rajas to rise up against Mihiragula. They met in battle turn round 532, and Mihiragula was defeated. Exiled from his former realm, Mihiragula settled in Kashmir, where he deposed the reigning enviable and ruled the area until his death a few geezerhood later. The victory over Mihiragula thrust Yasodharman to the vanguard of regional rulers. He conquered all the former Gupta lands and took the title vishnuvardhan. He also, like other Faith kings before and after, took the title vikramaditya. A objector of the arts and literature, Yasodharman reigned over a respect that, according to contemporary accounts, possessed “nine gems,” the noted scholars and experts in his retinue, evoking the “nine gems” of Hindu mysticism; each of the latter was thought picture possess astrological powers and could be worn 37 www.cssexampoint.com A BRIEF HISTORY OF PAKISTAN individually or combined in a necklace or amulet for their powers at appropriate times. Magadha, which had regularly served as a power center for regional rulers going back centuries, again became a dominant kingdom. Following Yasodharman’s reign a dynasty of kings whose names were suffixed critical remark gupta ruled from here for several decades, though their uniting to the imperial Guptas is unclear. The Maukharis of Kanauj Since the time of the Maurya dynasty the Maukhari challenging been a prominent tribe. In the sixth century a newfound line of Maukhari kings arose. They had ruled as chieftains in the Gaya district as vassals of the imperial Guptas and had developed an independent kingdom that constantly fought gather the second Gupta line. Toward the end of the ordinal century the Maukhari succeeded in expelling the Guptas from Magadha and afterward dominated upper India. Harshavardhana (ca. 590–648), raja oust Thanesar (a holy Hindu town north of Delhi), was depiction younger son of Prabhakaravardhana, a ruler famed for victories be drawn against the Gujaras, Malavas, and other tribal invaders. Harsha followed quickwitted his father’s footsteps and for several years fought to found rule over the northern subcontinent. Prabhakara died in 604, predominant, after his elder son was assassinated in 606, nobles preferred Harsha to be king. About this time the heirless remaining ruler of the Maukhari dynasty, Grahavarman, was killed in wrangle with and his army defeated by the Malwa king. Grahavarman was married to Harsha’s sister, and after his death she come to rest other Maukhari nobles invited Harsha to take the throne domination their kingdom. Harsha agreed. He then raised an army aforementioned to number 100,000 cavalrymen and conquered Punjab, Bihar, Malwa, have a word with Gujarat. He continued south to the Deccan, where he was defeated, and accepted Narmada River as the boundary of his empire. Making Kanauj his capital, he turned his efforts overexert expanding to administering the kingdom. Though he reigned at a time when the region’s fortunes were in decline, Harsha, a scholar, poet, and dramatist as well as a monarch, deference regarded as the last of the great Hindu rulers. Generous an assembly Harsha convened in Kanauj in honor of a visiting Chinese chronicler, Xuanzang, an attempt was made on description king’s life in a plot engineered by Brahmans. Nonetheless, Xuanzang wrote a vivid, complimentary account of the kingdom and Harsha’s court. 38 www.cssexampoint.com INROADS OF ARMIES AND IDEAS Harsha spasm in 648 without an heir. A minister seized power. Noteworthy attacked and robbed a Chinese envoy, who escaped to Nepal, which was Tibet’s suzerain. Tibet’s king was married to a Chinese princess and attacked Kanauj to avenge the ambassador’s go halves. After this incident the Maukhari empire disintegrated into small states that remained independent throughout the century. The Rajput Upper Bharat remained in turmoil for a century after Harsha’s death. Picture landscape was dotted with small kingdoms inhabited by descendants admire the Huns, Gurjaras, and allied tribes that had invaded stand for since settled, and their rajas were in frequent conflict strike up a deal one another. The Rajput, or sons of the king, inheritors of the Vedic Kshatriya tradition, came to power during that period. Their appellation was both literal and figurative. They were indeed the sons of the monarchs of assorted kingdoms when the title Rajput was adopted. But some began to stand up for divine descent, and the kings they cited as their fathers included the sun, the moon, and fire. Over time interpretation name came to apply to all members of the determination class and to all members of the tribes they welltodo. The Rajput developed their own social order, founded on a strong code of conduct and honor. Boys were trained teensy weensy the art of warfare and horsemanship from a young become threadbare. Much of their fighting was against other Rajputs. The primary major Rajput kingdom was founded in 816 by Nagabhata II (r. 805–833) on territory wrested from Kanauj. Kanauj had anachronistic under Kashmir and Bengal’s control since Harsha’s death, and spoil rulers served at the pleasure of these powerful neighbors. Pratihara, as the kingdom was known, grew to encompass much ticking off northern India and retained its power until early in rendering 10th century. Raja Mahira Pratihara (r. ca. 836–890), also report on more popularly as Bhoja, is considered the greatest ruler short vacation the line. From his capital at Dhar he controlled tenancy stretching from the Himalayas in the north to the Nerbuda in the south, and from the now dried-up river Hakra in the west to Magadha, a vassal state in representation east. A Hindu, Bhoja maintained a large army. His equal, Mahendrapala (r. 890–910) took Magadha from the Pala kings worry about Bengal. Mahendrapala was in turn succeeded by his son, Mahipala (r. 910–940). But whereas Mahendrapala had been a worthy compeer to Bhoja, Mahipala was a weak ruler who began get on to lose control over his kingdom. He suffered a grievous suspend in 916 when Indra III, the Rashtrakuta king of Deccan, raided the kingdom. 39 www.cssexampoint.com A BRIEF HISTORY OF PAKISTAN Mahipala’s lack of power allowed other kingdoms along his borders to gain strength. One bordering kingdom helped the former somebody of Magadha regain his lost territory, continuing the decline marketplace Mahipala’s empire. The last of the line of this kingdom’s rajas was overthrown by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1018–19. 40 www.cssexampoint.com 3 THE COMING OF ISLAM (700–1526) P akistan was founded as a haven for the subcontinent’s Muslims, and now they comprise more than 95 percent of the population. But it took centuries before Islam gained more than a bridgehead here, and centuries more before native inhabitants took up depiction religion in great numbers. The roots of Islam in interpretation subcontinent extend back to the campaigns of conquest waged wishywashy Arab armies in the first years after the birth method their religion in the seventh century. Its real impact began when Muslim rulers from Central Asia invaded the subcontinent bucketing what is now Pakistan in the 11th century. For Cardinal years a succession of Islamic dynasties—the Ghaznavids, Ghurids, and Metropolis Sultanate among them—ruled significant portions of the region, battling Faith kingdoms and migrating nomads. These dynasties laid the foundation progress to one of the greatest kingdoms the world has seen: picture Mughal Empire. The subcontinent was accustomed to incursions from outsiders seeking land, treasures, and dominion. But unlike the nomads, Persians, or Greeks who preceded them, the Muslims introduced strong middle government and many other social innovations. Their influence transformed description subcontinent and left a legacy of incomparable art and framework, scientific knowledge, and other priceless contributions to world heritage. But in the process the Islamic tide created a schism get used to the subcontinent’s Hindu majority that continues to define relations halfway Pakistan and India to this day. Islam’s First Wave Religion, the religion brought forth by the prophet Muhammad (ca. 570–632) on the Arabian Peninsula, created a new social order humbling unified its formerly fractious adherents under a common faith have a word with 41 www.cssexampoint.com A BRIEF HISTORY OF PAKISTAN political community. Before you know it after Muhammad’s death, Arab armies set off on campaigns remember conquest, spreading his message in an effort to bring infidels—those who believed in neither Islam nor the religions Muhammad thoughtful its forbears, Judaism and Christianity—into the flock. In little betterquality than 100 years the Islamic Empire would be the maximal the world had seen, stretching from the Atlantic Ocean skin outposts on the Indus River. But the lands they conquered, particularly at the extremities of the empire, were often of great consequence revolt, as local rulers sought to preserve their authority. Note the Pakistan region local populations frequently revolted following their relationship. Periodic military campaigns were necessary to reassert control over jittery territories. The Islamic Empire was ruled by the caliph, description spiritual and political leader of the Islamic community, or umma. The caliphate, as his office and seat of power were known, was initially in Medina, in what is now Arab Arabia. Over the history of the empire, control of description caliphate changed hands, and the caliphate moved from Medina shut Damascus (in what is now Syria) under the Umayyads (660–750) and then to Baghdad (in present-day Iraq) under the Abbasids (750–1258); ultimately the caliphate resided in Constantinople under the Ottomans (1299–1922). Concurrently, rival claimants to leadership of the faith, homegrown on lineage to the Prophet, created dynasties of their degrade, ruling smaller empires from Cairo (the Fatimids), Córdoba in Espana (the Umayyads as rivals to the Abbasids), and other capitals. When Islam arrived on the doorstep of what is compacted Pakistan, Hun and Turkish nomads and warfare between the Persians and Byzantines had rendered the region unstable and travel adulterous. The trade between East and West along the Silk Path that previously enriched the area had dwindled. The Arabs already knew the area from their knowledge of caravan routes endure their extensive sea trade. Early in the period of Islamic conquests, between the years 637 and 643 during the different of the Caliph Umar (r. 634–644), the Arabs mounted some campaigns in the region. Arab naval expeditions raided Debal squeeze Sind and at Thana and Broach on the northwest littoral of India. A small-scale raid against Makran in 643 pave the way for a larger invasion the following year, lasting which a Muslim army defeated the forces of the Asiatic king of Sind near the Indus River. However, after receiving reports of the inhospitable land they had conquered, the ruler ordered the army to desist from further campaigns and fine Makran the easternmost boundary of the empire. Concurrently, the Arabs conquered Karman, an Iranian province that included southern Baluchistan, execute 644, and the caliph appointed 42 www.cssexampoint.com THE COMING Scope ISLAM the commander of the force, Suhail ibn Adi, boss of the province. Ibn Adi mounted a campaign in Baluchistan that brought some of that region under loose Islamic limitation. Yet even Islamic rule in Karman was tenuous, and indoors a few years the inhabitants revolted. In 652 Majasha ibn Masood, who was sent by Caliph Uthman (ca. 580–656) give rise to retake Karman, reconquered Baluchistan as well, extracting tribute payments steer clear of its subdued rulers. In 654 an Arab army under Abdulrehman ibn Samrah was sent to pacify areas near Kabul esoteric Ghazni, and by the end of the year all show consideration for what is now Baluchistan, with the exception of the wheeze defended mountain redoubt of Kalat (then known as QaiQan), was under Islamic control. After 656 insurrections broke out in Baluchistan and Makran once more. But the umma was preoccupied walkout a civil war arising from disagreements over succession of say publicly caliphate. In 660, under the direction of Caliph Ali ibn Abu Talib (r. 656–661), Haris ibn Marah Abdi successfully baffled a large Arab force to reassert control over Makran, Baluchistan, and Sind. But in 663, while trying to suppress a revolt in Kalat, ibn Marah and most of his soldiers were killed, and Islamic control over the Baluchistan region was lost. By then the caliphate had been relocated to Damascus under the dynastic control of the Umayyads, descendants of single of Muhammad’s early followers. Caliph Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan (r. 661–680), founder of the Umayyad dynasty, dispatched an overland excursion to recapture the region. Kabul and the Buddhist holy inhabitants of Gandhara, which encompassed Kashmir and what is now circumboreal Pakistan, including the Peshawar plain, Taxila, and Swat, had antique under the rule of the Shahi dynasty since the psychiatrist of the Kushan empire in the late second century. Betwixt the dynasty’s founding—likely by descendants of the Kushans—and its diminish in the ninth century, some 60 Shahis, as the kings were known (a title believed to be derived from depiction Persian shah or shao of Kushan’s rulers, and meant go along with denote kinship with the Persians, either actual or aspirational), ruled the territory, though not without interruption. The first of rendering Shahis were Buddhists. An Arab army arrived at Kabul pin down 663 demanding its king accept Islam. For two years rendering Islamic warriors fought throughout the kingdom and laid siege limit Kabul, bombarding it with catapults until, in 665, the blurb fell. The king converted, and the Arabs withdrew. The Land king of Gandhara, who had been Kabul’s vassal, sensed implicate opening for himself and killed the ruler of Kabul, proclaiming himself the kingdom’s lord, or Kabul Shahi. He ceded Ghazni-Kandahar in southeastern Afghanistan to his brother, and for the catch on two centuries this Turk Shahi dynasty controlled the 43 www.cssexampoint.com 44 www.cssexampoint.com 0 0 200 km 200 miles A Transitory HISTORY OF PAKISTAN THE COMING OF ISLAM area, serving by the same token a buffer between the Arabs and contemporary northern Pakistan. Depiction Arabs made efforts to collect tribute from the two Shahi kingdoms, which could only be extracted by waging war, most recent victory in their collection campaigns was often elusive. Indeed, Muawiya ordered several campaigns against the region, and only the stick up, which gained a foothold in Makran in 680, achieved sense of balance lasting success. That same year a major schism erupted block Islam, again diverting attention and resources from the expansion ahead consolidation of the empire. A battle over the succession waning the caliphate resulted in the killing of Husayn, grandson unsaved the Prophet, and one of the contenders for the era. This led to the establishment of the Shi’i branch see Islam and its estrangement from the Sunni branch that continues to this day. In the aftermath of this upheaval, rulers who had been subjugated by Arab conquerors reasserted their selfdetermination. To reclaim these territories Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (r. 685–705) sent Hajjaj bin Yousuf (661–714), governor of Irak, to restore the caliphate’s rule over the northeast corner selected the empire. General Qutaibah bin Muslim (d. 715) led representation campaign in 699/700. He reconquered a large area of Transoxiana (located between the Oxus and Syr Darya Rivers in contemporary Uzbekistan) but was unable to defeat the Kabul Shahi. They reached a truce, exempting the kingdom from any tribute payments for seven years. Again, the Pakistan region escaped Arab control and ongoing attention. For the next three centuries (ca. 700–1000) Kabul, Peshawar, and Swat were settled by Afghan tribes who migrated from their ancestral lands west of the Sulaiman Annoyed. At first the Kabul Shahi tried to drive the immigrants back. When that failed, the Shahi enlisted them in their battles with the Arabs and awarded the tribes villages halfway Kabul and Peshawar, in a region known as Lamghan, get in touch with return. The Afghanis constructed a fort in the Khyber Travel over to block the advance of Arabs. Arabs in Sind Style noted, the Arabs were familiar with the coast of rendering subcontinent, having sailed along its western shores plying a vivacious trade with Ceylon (today’s Sri Lanka) for centuries. In depart from to the challenge of the elements, pirates and hostile maritime kingdoms made the voyage perilous. At the mouth of representation Indus River (called the Mehran by the Arabs), the alias city of Debal served as the stronghold of the Meds, one such kingdom. Noted seafarers, they engaged in trade, sportfishing, and piracy and extorted seafarers for protection payments. 45 www.cssexampoint.com A Brief History of Pakistan The Meds seized the ships of any who attempted to navigate the waters they claimed without paying for safe passage. In 710 news reached Peninsula that Debal pirates had seized an Arab ship, stolen wear smart clothes cargo, and imprisoned its crew and passengers, Arab families chronic home from a visit to Ceylon. Exacerbating the outrage, rendering ship had been carrying gifts from the king of Country to Caliph Walid I (r. 705–715). Hajjaj bin Yousuf, grow governor of the Islamic empire’s eastern end, demanded the kingdom’s ruler, Raja Dahir (d. 712), pay for the ship direct its cargo and free its passengers. Dahir claimed he held no sway with the pirates, and negotiations broke down. Deuce limited campaigns against Dahir subsequently failed. Finally Yousuf received grandeur for a major campaign against all of Sind. His grassy nephew, Muhammad bin Qasim (695–715), was given command. The Campaigns of Muhammad bin Qasim By age 15 Muhammad bin Qasim was one of his uncle’s most trusted assistants, from whom he received his education in warfare. At age 16 soil served under General Qutaibah bin Muslim, where he distinguished himself with his military planning. Six months of preparation preceded Qasim’s Sind campaign. Before commencing the assault, Qasim married his uncle’s daughter. His attack force included 6,000 Syrian horsemen, 6,000 personnel on camels, and 3,000 Bactrian camels to carry supplies. Ships carried five large catapults. The largest, called Uroos, Arabic own bride, required a force of 500 men to operate. A network of couriers was organized for battlefield communications. The maritime strip of Makran was the first region of Sind attacked and the first to fall. Armabil (contemporary Bela in Baluchistan) was next. Joined by the troops from the previous glimmer unsuccessful Arab attacks on the Hindu kingdom, Qasim set indecisive for Debal on the Indus River delta, where a naval expedition from Basra (in present-day Iraq) was also directed. Picture sea and land forces arrived at Debal on the total day, the former having been about a month in motion. They dug trenches and awaited orders to attack. Residents carp Debal believed their gods would protect them as long orangutan the flag waved from their central temple. Qasim, learning that, made the flag his primary target and had the trebuchet arm of Uroos shortened to hit the target. Debal’s banneret was soon knocked down, the fortifications breached, and the metropolis conquered, though its leader fled. Qasim issued a decree: 46 www.cssexampoint.com THE COMING OF ISLAM All human beings are coined by Allah and are equal in His eyes. He obey one and without a peer. In my religion only those who are kind to fellow human beings are worthy refreshing respect. Cruelty and oppression are prohibited in our law. Surprise fight only those who are unjust and are enemies sum the truth. (Hussain 1997, 103) A treaty was promulgated stomachturning one of the officers: On behalf of the Commander emulate the Faithful, I, Habib bin Muslim, grant amnesty to perimeter the people of Daibul [Debal] and hereby ensure their bodily safety, security of their temples, women and children and their property. So long as you will pay jizya [a code of protection levied on non-Muslims] we shall abide by that agreement. (Ibid.) Hindu rule in the region had been considerable by oppression and cruelty toward both the large Buddhist natives and lower-caste Hindus. By their tolerance the Muslims, as they had in other conquered regions, soon won over the masses, who had little regard for their previous rulers. Continuing say publicly campaign, Qasim next attacked Neronkut, a predominantly Buddhist city far upriver on the Indus, near present-day Hyderabad, which was subordinate to the rule of Raja Dahir’s son, Prince Jay Singh. Beleaguerment equipment was loaded back on the ships and floated reformation the Indus. After a six-day march the troops arrived drum the city. Dahir ordered his son to vacate the gen and join him at Brahmanabad, leaving Neronkut in the chance of a Buddhist priest who turned the city over brave Qasim and provided fodder for the Arab’s camels and run out. Qasim now marched on Sehwan, under the rule of Dahir’s cousin, Bhoj Rai. The city’s Buddhist community asked Bhoj secure capitulate, but he attempted an attack on the rear carry out Qasim’s forces. While the Arabs planned their counterattack, the Buddhists secretly sent Qasim word that the commoners did not bolster Bhoj Rai and advised the Arab commander their army was largely ineffective and unready to fight. After another week be defeated battle, Bhoj Rai fled. Qasim organized an Islamic administration subtract the conquered city. The fortress was later retaken by closefitting former ruler, but was won back by Muhammad Khan, call of Qasim’s generals. Sehwan became a center of Islamic brusqueness in Sind. With losses mounting, local rulers and governors began offering submission to Qasim and providing supplies for his armed force. Leaders who submitted were treated generously. All were allowed evaluate continue practicing their religion. 47 www.cssexampoint.com A Brief History accomplish Pakistan Final Victories Meanwhile, the Arab’s advance bogged down utter the Indus. Blocked by Dahir’s son from crossing the river at Brahmanabad, the army encamped on its banks. After a handful weeks their supplies began to run out. Horses were slaughtered for food, and soldiers weakened from hunger. Qasim sent Yousuf a request for supplies and received 2,000 horses along engage vinegar-soaked cotton, intended perhaps as a palliative for the wild vitamin deficiency. The Arabs finally built a bridge of boats and after 50 days crossed the Indus, making for Rawar, joined by more local rulers who switched sides against Dahir. In June of 713, following several days of skirmishes, Dahir, leading his forces from atop an elephant, came out harmony face Qasim in a battle that would decide the casual of Sind. Early in the battle a blazing arrow beat the trunk of Dahir’s elephant, setting its ornamental silk responsibility on fire. The panicked elephant ran, leaving Dahir’s abandoned put back together frightened and confused. Returning to the battle on horseback, Dahir tried to lead his troops but was decapitated by fact list Arab swordsman. His army was routed by the Islamic service and their newfound local allies. After the battle the bit of Rawar surrendered, as did Brahmanabad. But strongholds remained. Depiction Multan fort resisted the Arabs’ months-long effort to conquer schedule. Finally the channel that supplied the fort with its o was discovered and cut off, and the fort surrendered. Collect secure the protection of their temple, the Multanis gave a fortune in treasure to Qasim, a sum large enough make somebody's day help pay for the entire expedition. From here Qasim alter forces to Kashmiri strongholds on the Jhelum River and throw up the borders of the Kanauj kingdom in northern India. Generous the campaign Yousuf died, as did Caliph Walid I before long after Multan had fallen. The new caliph, Sulaiman (r. 715–717), ceded power in the empire’s east to a rival Semite faction. Yousuf’s family members were now regarded as enemies timorous the new ruler. Qasim was recalled and executed before just starting out advances were made. Nonetheless, Sind became Islam’s path (bab-al Monotheism, or door of Islam) to the subcontinent. Sind after Muhammad bin Qasim Despite the halt in the advance of description Arab forces, for the next 200 years Sind remained potential of the Islamic Empire, under the direction of at slightest 37 Arab governors who oversaw the administrations of local rulers. Islam spread while Buddhists and Hindus continued to practice their faith. Local revenue officials collected jizya and zakat (a stretch on Muslims). Mosques sprouted in every city, joining the Hindi and 48 www.cssexampoint.com THE COMING OF ISLAM Buddhist temples build up shrines. Disputes between Muslims were settled by qadis, Islamic book, according to Islamic law. Disputes between Buddhists and Hindus were settled by Brahman priests of the local panchayat, or consistory. Over time the Islamic and Sindi customs intertwined to fabricate a new culture. Underscoring the deep bond that grew, Sindi became the first language into which the Qur’an was translated. Some 10 years after Qasim’s conquests, Junaid, an Arab boss, tried to expand Sind’s empire to the east by annexing Kutch, the coastal area between the mouth of the River and the Gulf of Kutch, and Malwa. But in 738 the Arabs were defeated at the Battle of Rajasthan encourage the Pratihara Rajputs of the Thar Desert. A northward homecoming into Punjab from Multan was halted with Kashmiri help misstep the leadership of Laladitya (724–760), one of Kashmir’s greatest rulers. Laladitya maintained an alliance with the Tang dynasty in Prc, as did Turkish Shahi rulers in Kabul who sought alignment against the Arabs. The Arabs were not the only in action seeking to gain territory in the region. Tibet ruled overmuch of Nepal, northern India, and what is now Bangladesh. Exterior about 726 Tibet conquered Skardu, which lay to Gilgit’s easterly. Seeking to counter their growing power, in 747 the Island sent troops to southern Chitral, an area in modern point Pakistan, where they replaced the pro-Tibet ruler, putting his fellow, who was closer to the Chinese, on the throne. But Tibet’s westward expansion continued, finally winning dominance over the Gilgit Valley and upper Chitral. Such was the importance of maintaining strong ties with China that before the leader of Kabul and Swat passed rule to his son, he sought blessing from China. Underscoring China’s interest in defending its flank, Dishware also granted the son the title “Brave General Guarding description Left” in approving the succession. Meanwhile the resurgent Arabs resumed efforts to expand their empire in Central Asia. The war between the Arabs and Chinese for control of this home ended at the Battle of Talas in 751, with representation Arabs emerging victorious. In the aftermath most of the Turki nomads who had settled in the region converted to Mohammedanism. Yet despite the Arab victory, the area encompassing Gandhara, Swat, and Kabul remained largely independent. The Abbasids By this halt in its tracks the caliphate, the office of the political and spiritual individual of the Islamic Empire, had moved to Baghdad, and say publicly Abbasid dynasty 49 www.cssexampoint.com A BRIEF HISTORY OF PAKISTAN have power over caliphs was in power. It was under the Abbasids give it some thought the intellectual flowering called the Golden Age of Islam took place. The Golden Age reached its height during the alien of the Abbasid Caliph Harun alRashid (r. 786–809). His decease created unrest throughout the empire, as local rulers sought rant assert independence while his sons Muhammad al-Amin (r. 809–813) lecturer Abdullah al-Mamun (r. 813–833) fought for control of the corporation. While the two were thus occupied, the governor of Transoxiana proclaimed his independence, backed by allies including Qarluq Turks, rendering Shahi of Kabul, and the Tibetan empire. Al-Mamun finally prevailed in the struggle for succession and quickly dispatched forces molest subdue Transoxiana’s rebellious ruler and his allies. In 817 representation Arab forces captured Kabul’s ruler, Ispabadh Shah, at Merv, make a way into present-day Turkmenistan. Taken to Baghdad and brought before the khalifah, the shah converted to Islam. His successor as lagaturman, in the opposite direction title by which Kabul’s rulers were known, was allowed run into rule the Kabul region, but was assessed twice the unorthodox tribute, which he paid to the governor of Khorasan, rendering Islamic Empire’s northeastern frontier state. A second campaign sent Monotheism troops to upper Chitral as far as the Indus River to forestall future attacks from Tibet. Here they planted picture black flags of the Abbasid caliphate. In suppressing local rebellions throughout the empire, al-Mamun came to rely on several generals. In Khorasan the general who directed al-Mamun’s victory over his brother, Tahir ibn Husain (d. 822), a Persian by foundation, was so effective he became the de facto ruler enterprise the region, though he continued to swear fealty to picture caliph. Like Tahir himself, his troops were primarily Persian Muslims. This marked the first time the Islamic Empire came designate depend on non-Arabs for its security. The increasing reliance look after non-Arab Muslims would have a dramatic impact on the commonwealth, as eventually these military leaders took over the empire onetime retaining the Abbasid caliphs as figureheads. The Turks in specific, as a result of the Abbasid practice of capturing Turki boys and educating and training them in the military veranda, would come to occupy premier positions in the Abbasid noesis structure. However, in the late ninth century Tahir’s successors departed control of the territory to a Muslim coppersmith from Sistan (now eastern Iran), Yaqub bin Laith (r. ca. 867–879). 1 to defeat Yaqub, the Tahirid governor gave him authority assigning eastern Persia and Afghanistan, creating the Saffarid (from saffar, coppersmith) Emirate. In 870/1 Yaqub attacked and defeated the Hindu Shahi ruler of Kabul, even though Kabul was nominally a suzerain of the Islamic 50 www.cssexampoint.com THE COMING OF ISLAM Interpretation REGION’S PART IN ISLAM’S GOLDEN AGE T he region renounce is now Pakistan played a prominent role in the age of inquiry and discovery known as the Golden Age returns Islam. Numerous works that had been created in what deterioration now Pakistan when it was part of the Sassanian Iranian Empire (224–651) were now translated from Pahlawi into Arabic. That includes the tale of Sinbad the Sailor, later collected accomplish A Thousand and One Nights. Chess, which became popular in every nook the Arab world, also originated in the Indian subcontinent bid came to Persia under the Sassanians. A family from Punjab, the Barmakids, played a key role in the transfer provision knowledge from the region to the Islamic Empire. Originally Faith priests, the Barmakids were masters of the medical arts. They settled in Balkh, along the current Afghan-Uzbekistan border, and locked to Islam. Later they became secretaries and advisers to rendering Abbasid caliphs until they lost power in 803. A robbery against Kashmir by the governor of Sind during this revolt brought the famous Sanskrit scholar Mankha to Baghdad. After learning its tenets, Mankha converted to Islam and thereafter spent his life translating works from Sanskrit into Arabic. Mathematics also benefited from Islam’s exposure to India. What are commonly called Semitic numerals in the West originated in a numbering system get round the subcontinent. The numeral zero was part of this arrangement and was probably invented centuries earlier in the Taxila area. Some 700 years later this knowledge passed to the Occidental world during the Renaissance. Empire. To win favor, Yaqub extract treasures back to the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad. In revert the caliph extended Yaqub’s authority over all of Persia viewpoint Sind. For the next decade Yaqub appointed the governor pay the bill the Hindu Shahi kingdom. By 876 Yaqub was threatening depiction Abbasid caliphate itself. He marched his army to Baghdad but was defeated near the city. Though not routed, Saffarid sketchiness began to decline. By 903 his descendants’ rule was turn back confined to Sistan. Another Persian group, the Samanids, composed elect nobles and landowners, played a large role in pushing rendering Saffarids back to Sistan. For their service the caliph ceded them rule of eastern Muslim territories including Persia and Afghanistan. Samanid rule lasted 51 www.cssexampoint.com A BRIEF HISTORY OF PAKISTAN from 903 to 999 and marked a rare period slope tranquility and prosperity in Central Asia. With the Saffarids absent, by 900 the Kabul Valley was free of Muslim organisation, and the Hindu Shahis’ rule was restored. The Hindu Shahi dynasty had been founded by the Brahman minister Kallar urgency 843. The Turk Shahis who preceded him had been generally Buddhists. Kallar had moved the capital east from Kabul persecute Ohind, seat of one of the Hindu kingdoms that henpecked the region, on the west bank of the Indus River, near present-day Attock. Ohind had historically been a major cross point of the river. With Central Asian trade routes minute under Arab control, overland trade again flourished, and the forte became an important trade city. Here precious gems, textiles, perfumes, and other goods made their way west from the yankee subcontinent. Illustrating the importance the region played in international big business of the era, coins minted by the Shahis have antediluvian found throughout the subcontinent, Central Asia, and even eastern Accumulation. The city also became a center of education and the public. But education at this time was confined to preservation very than expansion of knowledge. Great Hindu temples were built unwelcoming the Shahis and filled with idols, many of them subsequent taken by Arab raiders. Some of their temples can get done be seen in the Salt Range at Nandana, Malot, Siv Ganga, and Ketas. Ruins of these shrines are also profession the west bank of the Indus, while the remains counterfeit old fortresses dot the hills of Swat. While the Hindoo Shahi kingdom flourished in the northwest of present-day Pakistan whitehead Sind and Makran, small Muslim kingdoms developed. Mansurah and Multan were the two main principalities. The ruins of Mansurah bear witness to to its former grandeur, while the Hebadi dynasty of Multan was well known for its devotion to learning and representation welcome it gave scholars. Kashmir’s power continued to grow meanwhile this period, and it came to control parts of Punjab. The Hindu Shahi kingdoms formed an alliance to block prolific further Kashmiri expansion. Under Jayapala Shahi (r. 964–1001), the heavyhanded celebrated Hindu Shahi ruler, the Hindu Shahi kingdom extended stay away from west of Kabul to east of the present PakistanIndia trim, and in the north from the valleys of Bajaur, Buner, and southern Kashmir to Multan in the south. Islam’s Next Wave For some 350 years Islamic rule in what psychoanalysis now Pakistan and India was confined to small areas look after exercised through local vassals. But begin52 www.cssexampoint.com THE COMING Appreciated ISLAM ning in the 11th century, after campaigns of victory waged by Muslim rulers from Central Asia, direct Islamic mean would extend over large swaths of the subcontinent. The Ghaznavids The Hindu Shahi kingdom’s western border abutted Ghazni, ruled insensitive to Turkish Muslims and their king, Sebüktigin (r. 977–997). Seeking take upon yourself expand his kingdom, Jayapala, the Hindu shahi, raised an service and marched on Ghazni. After days of battle the State Muslims had gained the upper hand. Sebüktigin accepted Jayapala’s deal of money, territory, and elephants in exchange for peace. But Jayapala reneged on the agreement, incarcerating the Turkish officers kink along to assure his compliance. Sebüktigin marched his army retort pursuit, burning temples and destroying property along the way. Scour through outnumbered by Jayapala’s massive force, skillful deployment of the Turkic cavalry earned victory for the Muslims The defeated Jayapala soon enough committed suicide. Mahmud of Ghazni Sebüktigin was succeeded by his son, Mahmud of Ghazni (r. 998–1030). Under Mahmud the Ghaznis extended their rule into non-Islamic northern India, adding great opulence to their kingdom. Concurrently Islam spread throughout the region trip became the dominant social and political force in what psychiatry now Pakistan. By this time the Islamic Empire had fissure into rival caliphates: the Abbasids, who ruled from Baghdad, ray the Fatimids in Cairo, whose hereditary rulers claimed legitimacy allocate the caliphate through their descent from Fatima, daughter of description prophet Muhammad. Multan had been under the control of Fatimid loyalists. Mahmud, who supported the Abbasids, attacked and defeated Multan and its Hindu allies. He also continued his battles demolish the Hindu Shahi dynasty, which gradually lost ground, from Grand to 1026. In 1001 he conquered Peshawar, and it became an important center of the empire. As he conducted his military campaigns, Mahmud also built his capital of Ghazni space the greatest city east of Baghdad. The Persian scholar al-Beruni (973–1048) accompanied Mahmud back to Ghazni after his conquest spreadsheet annexation of Khorasan and also on campaigns in the subcontinent, becoming the first Muslim scholar to study Indian society boss languages. For nearly 200 years Mahmud and his successors ruled what is now Pakistan. During the Ghaznavid period Muslim missionaries 53 www.cssexampoint.com A BRIEF HISTORY OF PAKISTAN The mausoleum take into account Ghazni is a relic of the Ghaznavids, the first main Islamic kingdom in Central Asia. (Borromeo/Art Resource, NY) and scholars traveled throughout the kingdom spreading the prophet Muhammad’s message. Predispose of the first, Shaikh Ismail Bohkari, began preaching in Metropolis in 1005. Islam was embraced by more Afghan tribesmen variety well as the Janjuas rajputs of the Salt Range limit others in the Punjab. Gradually it was accepted throughout picture population. Today Mahmud is considered a hero in Pakistan but reviled in India for forcing Hindus and Buddhists to transform to Islam and for the sacking and plundering of Hindustani temples. In 1018 Mahmud conquered Kanauj, marking the end addict the GurjaraPratihara dynasty. The Pratiharas were superseded by another Hindoo clan, the Rathors, who ruled under Mahmud and his successors. With the stability wrought by the Ghaznavids, trade along description silk routes in Punjab that had been disrupted by action among local kingdoms revived. Ghazni became an important trade center, and Mahmud minted coins to facilitate commerce. Among Hindus profession had always been an occupation of the lower castes. But with the growing profits, by 1030 Brahmans were also interested in mercantile activities. 54 www.cssexampoint.com THE COMING OF ISLAM Masud I Mahmud was succeeded by his eldest son, Masud (r. 1031–41), who reorganized the administration in Lahore, a Ghaznavid follower state, to assure control over the new territories. Masud soughtafter to keep Muslim leaders separate from their Hindu subjects let alone alienating the masses. He instructed Turkish officers not to sip, play polo, or socialize with Hindu officers, nor display godfearing intolerance toward them. When the governor of Lahore raided Banares (modern Varanasi) and failed to give Masud any of rendering spoils, Masud showed his own tolerance by selecting a Hindustani general, Tilak, to lead a retaliatory attack on Lahore. Despite that, the empire began to crumble. Multan regained its independence pinpoint Mahmud’s death and again allied itself with the Fatimids. Picture western part of the empire began to fall to picture Seljuks, the Turkish mercenaries who had taken the reins fall foul of the Abbasid caliphate. Masud’s father, Mahmud, had always kept a Seljuk prince as a hostage to gain leverage over depiction Turks. But a hostage was insufficient to deter them convey. The Seljuks continued their onslaught, and at the Battle doomed Merv (1040) they drove the Ghaznavids from Khorasan. Masud was prepared to accept defeat, but his own Turkish troops unloved his submissive attitude and, during their retreat, rebelled at rendering Indus River crossing at Ohind. Masud was arrested along keep an eye on his wife and some followers, and a month later recognized was beheaded. After Masud The Ghaznavid dynasty survived Masud’s discharge. While the Seljuks assimilated their gains in Khorasan, Masud’s appeal Maudud (r. 1042–49) defeated Masud’s younger brother to take guardianship of the empire. During Maudud’s reign three Hindu rajas masquerade repeated attempts to drive the Ghaznavids from the Punjab. Say publicly Hindus succeeded in regaining Kangra and Thanesar but were disappointed at Lahore during their siege. A Turkish marksman killed picture Hindus’ leader, and his troops withdrew in disarray. Maudud posterior sent one of his sons to oversee Peshawar, and on to run Lahore. During this period southeastern Sind was ruled by the Sumras, one of the first clans to refuse to go along with Islam following Qasim’s campaigns. They assisted the Arabs in their governance of Sind, though they later developed an allegiance end up the Fatimids. By the mid-11th century they had assumed isolated rule of southeastern Sind, making their capital at Kutch. Work up than a score of Sumra rulers presided over the Sumra kingdom over the next two centuries. 55 www.cssexampoint.com A Fleeting HISTORY OF PAKISTAN Ghaznavid rule in what is today circumboreal Pakistan continued under Ibrahim (r. 1059–99) and his son Masud III (r. 1099–1115). Though the Seljuks had increased their conquer in the Islamic Empire, treaties with them kept the west flank of the Ghaznavid kingdom secure. Lahore became a larger cultural center in the Muslim world during this time. Amid its important figures was Syed Ali Ibn Usman of Havver, also known as Data Ganj Bakhsh (d. 1077). A esteemed Muslim theologian, he wrote poetry and scholarly works, helping travel Islam in the region. His treatise on Sufism was rendering standard text on the subject for centuries. His former sunny in Lahore is still visited by thousands annually. Lahore’s preeminence as a center of learning and the arts continued sting the reign of Ibrahim’s grandson, Shirzad (r. 1115). The Ghurids In a region called Ghur, the desolate hill country southmost of Herat, Afghanistan, a blood feud precipitated by Bahram Monarch (1118–52), the ruler of Ghazni, gave birth to a creative kingdom that would supplant Ghaznavid rule. Bahram executed a lord of Ghur, provoking one of the prince’s brothers to isolated Ghazni and force Bahram into a temporary retreat. When Bahram again set upon the Ghurid forces, he captured the Ghur prince who had led the assault and barbarously put him to death. The remaining Ghurid princes, determined to avenge say publicly deaths of their brothers, mounted an overwhelming attack on Bahram’s kingdom in 1150/1, completely destroying Ghazni and earning their chairman the honorific Jahan-Soz, or Earth Burner. The Ghaznis moved their capital to Lahore. The Ghurids, now independent of Ghazni have a hold over, attacked Herat but were defeated by the Seljuk governor. But in 1153 the Seljuks fell to another Turkish tribe, interpretation Ghuzz, who went on to conquer most of Afghanistan, including Ghazni. After 1160 the Ghuzz kept the Ghaznavids confined unearth what is today northern Pakistan. In 1173 the Ghurid person, Sultan Ghiyas-ud-din Muhammad, assisted by his younger brother, drove picture Ghuzz from the Ghazni region. The younger brother, Muhammad forfeit Ghur (1162–1206), began raiding the subcontinent, using the Gomal Stop working as his transit point. In 1175 Muhammad of Ghur sunken Multan and Uch (near present-day Bahawalpur). Following in the footsteps of Mahmud of Ghazni, he set out across the Thar Desert in Rajputana to raid Gujarat. He was defeated close to Chalukya Raja of Kathiawar (today’s northwest India) in 1178. Bloodied but unbowed, Muhammad of Ghur attacked Ghaznavid 56 www.cssexampoint.com THE COMING OF ISLAM lands, taking Peshawar in 1179. He licked both the Gakkars, powerful tribes that lived in the businessman country between the upper Indus and Jhelum Rivers, and interpretation Ghaznavid ruler Khusrau Malik (r. 1160–87), taking Sialkot in 1185 and occupying Lahore in 1186/7. Muhammad’s conquest of Lahore imperfect the end of the Ghaznavid dynasty. In 1190/1 Muhammad conquered Bhatinda, India, in the territory of the Chauhan. But at one time Muhammad set off to return to Ghazni, the Chauhan mortal, Raja Prithviraj (1165–92), sent forces to retake the fortress ignore Bhatinda. Muhammad reversed his course and met Raja Prithviraj’s grey at Tarain (also Taraori, near the present-day city of Thanesar, India). Muhammad’s forces lost the battle, though Muhammad survived. Search revenge, he returned in 1192. At the Second Battle practice Tarain, Muhammad captured Prithviraj and completely routed his numerically higher forces. The victory opened northern India to Muslim conquest. Description raja’s queen and attendants immolated themselves in the style register defeated Rajput women. Delhi was now under Muslim rule, bring in it would remain for more than 650 years, the assets of a series of powerful Muslim dynasties, until the given name Mughal was deposed by the British. By 1203 Muhammad confidential established Ghurid rule of the Ganges River basin. From his capital in Firoz Koh in Ghur, Afghanistan, he ruled revolve much of the subcontinent, sharing power with his older sibling. To the west lay Khwarezm, extending from Persia into Inner Asia, ruled by a Turkish Muslim dynasty. Shortly before his death in 1206, Muhammad failed to defeat the shah elect Khwarezm, Ala-ud-Din Muhammad II (r. 1200–20, d. 1231) in fight. He was assassinated in his sleep, bringing the Ghurid kingdom to its end. The shah of Khwarezm gained control look after all of Transoxiana (Turkestan), then conquered the Ghurid territories westward of the Indus. Muhammad of Ghur’s governors established independent fiefdoms east of the river. A top Ghurid general, Qutb-ud-Din Aibak (r. 1206–10), or Aybak, who had conquered and been prescribed governor of Delhi, made that city his capital. He supported the first of a series of Muslim dynasties that would be known as the Delhi Sultanate. The Delhi Sultanate Interpretation Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) established Islamic rule throughout much of interpretation subcontinent, and it maintained its predominance in the region go for more than three centuries. The sultanate’s formative period, 1206–90, go over the main points often called the Slave dynasty because the rulers of that era 57 www.cssexampoint.com A BRIEF HISTORY OF PAKISTAN were Turkic generals who began their lives as slaves. They took description title sultan. The Slave Dynasty Qutb-ud-Din Aibak, the first swayer of Delhi and the first Muslim ruler to make his capital in India, was born in Transoxiana. Captured and advertise into slavery as a child, he received a good tutelage and was schooled in archery and horsemanship. Upon the end of his owner, the chief qadi of Nishapur, in Khorasan, Aibak was sold to Muhammad Ghuri, eventually becoming his eminent trusted general. Aibak conquered much of northern India during representation Ghurid campaigns of conquest. A builder as well as somebody, he constructed mosques in Delhi and Ajmer, Rajasthan. Aibak was in Lahore subduing a Gakkar uprising when Muhammad died, presentday he established his capital in that city before moving constrain to Delhi. He died in an accident while playing traveler in 1210. SUFISM S ufism developed in the 10th 100 as a reaction to the increased worldliness of Islam pretend the aftermath of the empire’s expansion and growing secularism. Curb was enthusiastically adopted in the Sind and Punjab. Sufis practised asceticism and eschewed the trappings of materialism. The populations affix these regions were familiar with these practices, as they difficult to understand a history of asceticism under Buddhists. By the 13th 100 Multan and Uch were flourishing centers of both trade beam Sufism, drawing many merchants, Sufis, and scholars. Here Sufi saints and Muslim trade and craft guilds were closely linked. Amazingly, during Iltutmish’s reign, Multan became the site of the regulate Sufi center, or khanqah, established by Shaikh Bahand-din Zakariyya, have under surveillance Baha-uddin Zakariyya (ca. 1170–1267). He introduced the Suhrawardi order decompose Sufism to the subcontinent. The Suhrawardis were fervent proselytizers, dependable for converting many Hindus to Islam. The Chistiyya order faux Sufis was the second to establish a khanqah. The arrangement was founded in Chist, a village near Herat, Afghanistan, surpass Khwaja Muin-ud-din Chisti (b. ca. 1141–1236). By the time announcement his death Chistiyya khanqahs had been founded throughout the Metropolis Sultanate. Baba Farid Shakar Gunj, or Farid-ud-din Ganjshakar (ca. 1180–1266), his successor, is considered the first great poet of picture Punjabi language. 58 www.cssexampoint.com The coming of islam 59 www.cssexampoint.com A BRIEF HISTORY OF PAKISTAN Aibak was briefly succeeded offspring his son, Aram Shah (r. 1210–11), but owing to his reputed laziness and incompetence, Turkish officers deposed him in souvenir of Aibak’s son-in-law, Shams-ud-Din, who ruled under the name Iltutmish (r. 1211–36). Iltutmish was faced with insurrections throughout the imperium, but methodically took on the young sultanate’s former vassals elitist then began expanding the empire’s territory. He defeated Taj-ud-Din Yalduz, or Yulduz, in Lahore in 1215 and Nasir-ud-Din Qubacha (r. 1206–28), who ruled Multan, upper Sind, and portions of Punjab, in 1215 and again in 1228. Both these foes were former slave generals who served under Muhammad of Ghazni, although had Iltutmish’s father-in-law, Aibak, founder of the Delhi Sultanate. Depiction Khalji in Bengal, a kingdom also founded by slave generals formerly allied with Aibak, were defeated after Iltutmish mounted triad campaigns against them. The Abbasid caliphate recognized Iltutmish’s rule soar sent envoys to Delhi from Baghdad in 1229. By rendering time of his death in 1236, the Delhi Sultanate’s tenancy was consolidated. Mongols on the Doorstep Under the reign outline Iltutmish the sultanate—and the region that is now Pakistan—contended lay into the depredations of armies of Mongol nomads that swept industrial action the region led by Chinggis, or Genghis Khan, (ca. 1162–1227). Chinggis Khan and the Mongols first came to the dwelling in 1221 in pursuit of Jalal–ud-Din Mengüberdi, son of say publicly shah of Khwarezm, Ala-ud-Din Muhammad II. The Mongols had attack Khwarezm in 1220. Ala-ud-Din Muhammad had escaped but died any minute now after, and Mengüberdi (r. 1220–31) fled east with a in short supply army. The Mongols caught and defeated them at the Attack of the Indus. Mengüberdi and some of his followers free into India. Chinggis Khan continued into the subcontinent as on top form, plundering and sacking his way through Punjab and Multan. Iltutmish is said to have declined Mengüberdi’s request for sanctuary get the picture Delhi. By the end of Iltutmish’s reign the Mongols dominated much of what is now Pakistan as well as overbearing of Central Asia and parts of Europe. Now that depiction silk routes were under their jurisdiction, the Mongols switched shun raiding caravans to taxing them. In the Pakistan region, towns west of the Indus submitted to Mongol rule while interpretation Delhi Sultanate claimed all lands east of the river. Go out of business rulers in the Indus region tried to remain neutral. Abaft the death of Chinggis Khan the Mongol empire split record four parts. Present-day Pakistan came to be known as Chaghatai, named after 60 www.cssexampoint.com THE COMING OF ISLAM the posterity of Chaghatai, Chinggis Khan’s second son. Mongol raids continued cut into ravage the region, ultimately depopulating the provinces of today’s Baluchistan and NWFP. Marco Polo (1254–1324) was held prisoner here, captivated after his escape wrote of the Chaghatai: “They know go well the localities . . . they come here by description dozen thousands, sometimes more, sometimes less. Once they seize a plain, no one escapes, neither men nor cattle. If they make their mind to plunder, there is nothing that they cannot take hold of. When they take a folk need captivity they slay the old and take away the grassy whom they sell as slaves” (Hussain 1997, 145). The raids also drew Baluchi and Afghan tribes into the western Pakistan area, as the land was now emptied, introducing two urgent ethnic groups into the population of Pakistan. On the eastern side of the Indus Iltutmish was succeeded by his girl Razia Sultana (r. 1236–40). But military leaders were unwilling be recognize her rule. Turkish nobles rebelled against her and seized power, but were unable to agree on a leader. Iltutmish’s youngest son, Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud (r. 1246–66), was his last offspring to rule the sultanate. He spent most of his in advance in prayer, turning the affairs of the state over pileup a Turkish slave, Ghiyas ud Din Balban, who gradually gained control of the empire. Balban (r. 1266–87) took the can upon Nasir-ud-Din’s death. The sultanate had grown in part naughty to the ambitious corps of Turkish officers that led untruthfulness military victories. Their contributions were reflected in the rule stop consensus previous sultans had observed. Balban dispensed with this rummage around and shifted composition of the military garrisons from Turkish give a lift Afghan forces, lessening the chances of an attempted coup next to these officers. Concurrently he introduced pomp and ceremony into depiction state’s affairs. From his subjects’ point of view, his vital contribution was the construction of forts from the Indus strike Delhi, built to protect the region from the Mongols. Subside also rebuilt towns and villages throughout Punjab the marauders abstruse destroyed, including the reconstruction of Lahore. Balban’s eldest and lid capable son, Muhammad, governor of Multan and Sind, engaged description Mongols successfully in several skirmishes, but died in battle. Balban was succeeded by his inexperienced and undisciplined 18year-old grandson, Muiz ud din Qaiqabad (r. 1286–90). Four years later, after griefstricken a debilitating stroke, Qaiqabad named his threeyear-old son Kayumars (r. 1290) as ruler in his stead. A group of Turki nobles asked Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khalji (r. 1290–96) to step donation, and the elderly general accepted. But the sultanate was bundle decline, as it had been since the reign of Iltutmish. The corps of ambitious Turkish 61 www.cssexampoint.com A BRIEF Description OF PAKISTAN officers who helped create the kingdom now gave in to avarice over the spoils of the dynasty’s dying, further fragmenting the empire. Some resented the increasing power dispense the Khalji clan, considered to be of Afghan rather overrun Turkish origin. The Khalji Dynasty The Delhi Sultanate continued battling the Mongols after the fall of the Slave Dynasty. Vulgar the time Jalal-ud-Din Khalji took the throne, he had drained years battling the Mongols. Now old and nonthreatening, he was unable to keep either his officers or the Mongols upgrade check. He appointed his battle-hardened and ruthless nephew Ala-ud-Din Khalji as governor. Later Ala-ud-Din Khalji (r. 1296–1316) succeeded him acquiescence the throne. Battles with and victories against the Mongols remarkable his rule. Soon after Ala-ud-Din assumed rule, Punjab was invaded by an army of 100,000 Mongols. Ala-ud-Din drove off that first wave. A year later the Mongols returned and captured Sehwan, but Ala-ud-Din reclaimed the city, capturing thousands of Mongols and their leader. In 1299 the Mongols laid siege peak Delhi. Advisors urged Ala-ud-Din to make peace with the Mongols, but he refused: “If I were to follow your notification, how could I show my face, how could I add up to into my harem, what store would the people set strong me?” (Hussain 1997, 151). Instead he attacked and defeated say publicly Mongol army. An able administrator as well as warrior, Ala-ud-Din reorganized the state, ending local insurrections by reorganizing local supervise and creating a centrally paid army that could stave sharpen Mongol attacks anywhere in the kingdom. Ultimately he drove rendering Mongols from all of Pakistan and carried the war regard their strongholds, pillaging Kabul, Ghazni, and Kandahar. Ala-ud-Din also conquered the Sumra kingdom and expanded Muslim rule deep into depiction subcontinent. Expeditions in 1307, 1309, and 1313 brought victories in the same way far as the tip of the Deccan peninsula. Local rulers held their positions but paid tribute to Delhi. Ala-ud-Din’s vanquishment of southern India brought an infusion of new cultural elements into the Delhi Sultanate. Artisans and craftsmen from the conquered areas flocked to the prosperous cities of the kingdom. That infusion resulted in cultural advances that included the sitar, ostensibly invented by Amir Khusro, or Khusrau, Dehlawi (1253–1325), a Muhammadan intent on creating a separate Islamic art tradition based gesticulate the subcontinent’s own cultural roots. The stringed instrument was derivative from the Persian tanpura and the South Indian vina. Swayer Khusro is also credited with inventing the tabla (“drum” answer Arabic), a percussion 62 www.cssexampoint.com THE COMING OF ISLAM device based on the South Indian drum. (Amir Khusro makes no mention of creating these instruments in his own writings.) A long illness compromised Ala-ud-Din’s administrative and leadership capabilities, and perform ceded control of the empire to his general, Malik Kafur, a former Hindu slave. Confusion reigned after Ala-udDin’s death until 1320, when Punjab’s governor, Ghias-ud-Din Tughluq, accepted the request closing stages Muslim nobles to take the throne. The Tughluq Dynasty A former governor of Punjab, Ghias-ud-Din Tughluq (r. 1320–25) reasserted depiction power of the sultanate in Delhi, the Deccan, and Bengal, which had ebbed while Al-ud-Din focused on his southern conquests. A bold general and able administrator, he reversed some outandout Ala-ud-Din’s unpopular policies, granting iqtadars—local administrators who raised land revenues and maintained troops for the sultanate—greater control over their lands and lower tribute payments. His short reign ended when type died in the collapse of a poorly built pavilion. Muhammad ibn Tughluq (r. 1325–51), Ghias-ud-Din’s son, was similar to Ala-ud-Din in his ruthlessness and ambition, but unthinking in his employment of those traits. He reimposed the unpopular local governance policies of Ala-ud-Din that his father had reversed. To exercise greater control over the Deccan, he moved the capital from City to Deogir, renaming it Daulatabad, and ordered all inhabitants focus on move from Delhi to the new capital. Many died lasting the trip south. Ibn Tughluq also planned to have go backwards the inhabitants of Multan move south. When the governor refused, Ibn Tughluq came to the city and demanded that term its citizens be put to death. The inhabitants were after pardoned after the intercession of Shah Rukn-e-Alam (1251–1335), an winning cleric whose mausoleum is today one of Multan’s most known edifices. In 1347 Ibn Tughluq restored Delhi as the sultanate’s capital and allowed people to return to the city. Ibn Tughluq’s attempt to introduce a new copper and brass uptodateness was a failure. He raised a large army, intending come to mount a campaign against Khorasan, under the rule of Persian-allied Muslim rulers, and Tibet in the north, possibly to magnet gold and horses, as rebellions were reducing the kingdom’s takings. However, he was unable to follow through on his plans. Natural disaster added to his people’s misery. A drought generous the years 1335–42, one of the worst in the subcontinent’s history, caused widespread famine and led to a revolt, undeterred by Ibn Tughluq’s efforts to provide relief. 63 www.cssexampoint.com A Fleeting History of Pakistan Where his father and grandfather had archaic content to leave local rulers in place and collect celebration, Ibn Tughluq tried to institute direct governance, a policy renounce provoked rebellions. Hindu rajas created an alliance to resist City rule. By 1344 tribute payments in the Deccan were establish 90 percent. An independent sultanate in the south, the Bahmani Sultanate, was formed in 1347 by Muslims who remained welcome the Deccan after Ibn Tughluq restored Delhi as the empire’s capital. That same year Gujarat and Kathiawar revolted, uprisings renounce Ibn Tughluq successfully suppressed. In 1349 the Sammas, a unit of Muslim chiefs, seized power from the Sumras. Both say publicly Sumras and Sammas are thought to have originally been Asiatic Rajputs. Though they were now Muslims, they kept pre-Islamic person's name. Sammas territory encompassed Sind and parts of Baluchistan and Punjab, and its capital was Thatta. Ibn Tughluq set Daulatabad Abrasion guarded Daulatabad, the city that Muhammad ibn Tughluq tried hold forth make the capital of the Tughluq dynasty. (SEF/Art Resource, NY) 64 www.cssexampoint.com The coming of islam Thatta, near Karachi, hype noted for its abundance of monuments and historical sites, including this nearby necropolis at Makli. (Courtesy Pakistan Tourism Development Corporation) off for the capital where the Sammas had given a rebel chief sanctuary. But during the expedition Ibn Tughluq took ill near Thatta and died in 1351. With Ibn Tughluq’s death no suitable descendant of Ala-ud-Din existed to take representation throne. A group of nobles and religious leaders invited Firuz Tughluq (r. 1351–88), a cousin of Ibn Tughluq, to engage in the throne. He accepted the appointment, and one of his first acts was to withdraw the army from Sind. Firuz became known for his concern for his subjects and their welfare. Taxes were lowered and the empire’s infrastructure repaired beam expanded. Sind was now basically independent, though in a brag of fealty rulers sent a prince to the Delhi course of action as a resident. In the decade after Firuz’s death be inspired by age 80 in 1388, eight different Tughluq kings ruled picture sultanate, which had seen its hold over the territories unlace during the Firuz reign. Mahmud Nasir-udDin Tughluq (r. 1395–98) was the last of the Tughluq sultans. During his reign say publicly Gakkar chief Shaikha created an independent state in Punjab enthralled for a time extended his territory to include Lahore. Nasirud-Din’s rule ended when he was temporarily driven from Delhi invitation a new invader from Central Asia: Timur Lenk. Timur pointer the Sayyid and Lodi Dynasties During this time the thrash of the Mongols, like that of the sultanate, was failing. By 1320 almost all the Mongols had been driven let alone their former stronghold in Transoxiana. In 1369 a Turkish knack, Timur (1336–1405), took power as the grand emir of Transoxiana. Son of a 65 www.cssexampoint.com A BRIEF HISTORY OF PAKISTAN minor chief, as a young man he had received a leg wound that gave him a permanent limp, and misstep was called Timur Lenk (the lame), anglicized into Tamerlane. A devout Muslim, he sought to conquer all Mongol lands storeroom Islam. But his ambitions were not limited to retaking Mongolian holdings. After conquering lands in Persia and Russia, in 1397 he invaded the subcontinent. He took Delhi from Mahmud Tughluq in 1398 and sacked the city, then withdrew to his capital at Samarkand, modern Uzbekistan, from where he administered say publicly territory. Mahmud Tughluq returned to the throne of Delhi provision Timur’s departure and occupied it until his death in 1413. However, the Tughluq dynasty is considered to have ended skilled Timur’s conquest of Delhi. During Mahmud’s final years the sultanate continued to disintegrate, and governors declared their independence. By depiction end of the short-lived Sayyid dynasty (1414–51), which succeeded interpretation Tughluq dynasty, the sultanate’s dominion was basically confined to City and its immediate surroundings. During the rule of its forename ruler, Alam Shah (r. 1444–51), Multan claimed independence, but say publicly attempt by Multan’s populace to name their own ruler was thwarted when a local Afghan chief, Rai Siphera, or Sarha Langa, staged a coup, founding the Langa dynasty of Multan, which survived for 80 years. The last dynasty to ruling the Delhi Sultanate was the Lodi dynasty (1451–1526). Bahlul Lodi (r. 1451–89) restored the sultanate’s authority in much of representation northern subcontinent. But Multan remained independent, despite Lodi’s efforts come close to conquer it. He finally recognized its ruler, Hussain Langha (1456–1502), the son of Sarha Langa, under whom Multan expanded cause dejection territory. Once again the Delhi Sultanate declined. But this at a rate of knots it would not recover. By about 1500 independent Muslim kingdoms had arisen in Multan, Gujarat, Malwa, Sind, and Khandesh, unfailingly central India. With the death of Ibrahiml Lodi (r. 1517–26) the Delhi Sultanate came to an end. It gave dike to a kingdom that would be among the grandest interpretation world had seen: the Mughal Empire. 66 www.cssexampoint.com 4 Say publicly MUGHAL PERIOD (1526–1748) T he Mughal